Before the 1920s Mongolians had no medical services other than what was provided by the lamas, who employed herbal medicines and prayers for recovery from illness. Public and personal hygiene were extremely poor, diseases such as tuberculosis and syphilis were widespread, and the population was in decline. During the socialist period Soviet doctors introduced modern Western medical practices and equipment and taught basic health care. The first teaching hospitals, clinics, and maternity homes were built in Ulaanbaatar. Medical treatment, paid for by the government, was free for patients.

The political and economic changes in the early 1990s left Mongolia’s health care system scrambling for funding. A national health insurance plan was introduced in 1994, and legislation subsequently was enacted to transform the state-run health care system and develop private health care. Many private-care plans are now available, mainly in Ulaanbaatar. Medical training was improved, and private hospitals, clinics, pharmacies, and “family doctor” surgeries were opened. In addition, donor countries built modern hospitals. As a result, infant mortality rates fell dramatically, and overall death rates declined as well before both stabilized.

Mongolia has a sophisticated social welfare system, funded by a combination of contributory social insurance and subsidies from the state budget. There is a range of assistance payments for child care, one-parent families, various disabilities, and state old-age pensions. Towns have employment agencies, and registered unemployed (those who have previously worked) can receive modest support. The unregistered unemployed include such groups as recent school graduates, former soldiers, and released prisoners. The government strictly controls the organized immigration of foreign workers, while rising numbers of Mongolians seek employment abroad, mainly in South Korea.

Education

In the prerevolutionary period, boys could be taught in monasteries to read and write in Mongolian and Tibetan or trained for secretarial work in the local administrative “seal” offices (so-named for the local rulers’ seals of authority kept in them). After 1921 Mongolia began building its first public schools, which started providing free education for all who attended them. The main thrust at first was directed at eradicating illiteracy and creating a trained intelligentsia. From 1940 on, however, the emphasis passed to expanding elementary and secondary facilities throughout the country and to establishing the first institution of higher education, the Mongolian State University, founded in 1942 (also called the National University of Mongolia). An important measure was the creation of boarding schools for the children of nomadic herding families. The funding for all these ventures came from the state budget, supplemented by Soviet aid subsidies. The Soviets also provided teacher training in the Soviet Union.

There are now hundreds of general schools that offer primary and secondary education, dozens of special vocational schools, about a dozen universities, and some hundred colleges. Education is compulsory for 11 years, beginning at age 6; a growing number of schools have instituted 12 years of mandatory education. In addition to the thousands of Mongolian students at the country’s institutions of higher education, hundreds also study in Russia as well as in the United States, Great Britain, China, and other countries.

The Academy of Sciences, founded in its present form in 1961 from earlier scholarly institutions, coordinates research across a wide range of scientific establishments including the Academies of Agricultural and Medical Sciences. There are several other institutions not subordinate to the Academy of Sciences, including the Defense and Police Academies, which are training schools, and the government-operated Academy of Management.