Cultural institutions
News •
Lisbon is home to the vast Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation and Museum—considered by many to be Portugal’s best museum, with its collections of sculptures, ceramics, and paintings from around the world—and its modern art centre. Lisbon also has other notable museums covering a broad range of art, including the National Art Museum; the National Museum of Coaches, which has a fine collection of antique vehicles; the National Museum of Ancient Art, which has excellent displays of Portuguese painting; the National Museum of Medieval Art; the National Museum of Contemporary Art; the National Tile Museum; the Maritime Museum, which has displays of royal galleons; the Museum School of Decorative Arts, which trains craftsmen in furniture restoration, bookbinding, the repair of ancient tapestries, and other fine handicrafts; and the Casa Fernando Pessoa, an arts centre honouring the great poet. Outstanding museums are also found throughout the country. Porto, for example, contains the Soares dos Reis National Museum, the National Museum of Modern Art, which is housed in a pink Art Deco mansion, and the Museum of St. Francis, which displays thousands of skulls from catacombs. The Machado de Castro National Museum in Coimbra houses a vast collection of sculpture, and there is a regional museum in Aveiro. The National Library and the Ajuda Library in Lisbon have fine collections, while the National Archives of Torre do Tombo contain valuable national documents. Outside Lisbon, the library of the Mafra Convent and that of the University of Coimbra have historical importance.
Sports and recreation
Bullfighting is a popular sport in Portugal and varies markedly from its Spanish counterpart. The Portuguese bullfighter, usually dressed in an 18th-century-style coat and tricornered hat, rides a horse and does not seek to kill the bull, the horns of which may be sheathed to protect the horse. The bullfighter is followed by young men called forcados, who confront the bull bare-handed.
Football (soccer), the most popular national sport, evokes intense emotion. The national team is among the world’s finest, though it has often had disappointing results in the World Cup tournament. Portugal’s most renowned player, Eusebio (originally from Mozambique), was one of the most prolific goal scorers in European football in the 1960s. In the 21st century his feats were rivaled by those of Cristiano Ronaldo, Portugal’s biggest football star in a generation. As elsewhere in much of Europe, basketball has grown in popularity. In individual events Portugal’s long-distance runners have proved exceptional, winning Olympic gold medals and world championships. Rosa Mota won the marathon at the 1988 Summer Games in Seoul, South Korea, a world championship title, and three European championships; and Carlos Lopes won the men’s marathon at the Summer Games in Los Angeles (1984).
Portugal’s long seacoast and mild climate make beachgoing a popular pastime, particularly in the Algarve. The country is also well known throughout the world for its many championship-level golf courses, especially in the south. In the 1990s Portuguese entrepreneurs began promoting Portugal as an ocean sports destination, drawing on a strong local tradition of sailing and surfboarding. As a result of this effort, the country has become a centre for scuba diving, with a number of attractive sites, including a dive over the wreckage of a British steamship that sank in 1847. Another favourite dive is Pelo Negro, a complex of shallow undersea canyons just beyond the beach at Leça da Palmeira. Skiing, particularly in the Estrela Mountains (which contain Portugal’s highest peaks), is popular in winter. Visits to Portugal’s many national parks are among the other popular recreational activities in the country.
Media and publishing
Before the revolution of 1974, all media in Portugal were censored. The 1976 constitution guaranteed freedom of the press. Readership of daily newspapers in Portugal is quite limited, particularly outside the urban centres. The nationalization of industry that began in 1974 encompassed the leading Lisbon newspapers, which had been owned by banks. Gradual reprivatization began in 1979. The daily Diário de Notícias (founded 1864) was long Portugal’s most prestigious newspaper. With privatization, however, the position of Diário has been challenged. Leading dailies include Público (founded 1990) and Correio da Manhã (founded 1979), and one of the most widely read newspapers is the weekly Expresso. Despite Lisbon’s prevalence in publishing, some regional daily newspapers, such as the Jornal de Notícias in Porto, enjoy wide circulation. The English-language The Portugal News is published weekly. Magazines of national and international news and review include the weekly Visão. In business and finance the magazine Exame and the newspaper Semanário Económico are leaders. Among the most widely read publications are A Bola (founded 1945), a daily sports paper, and Maria, a weekly magazine for women.
The broadcast media reach a much larger portion of the Portuguese population than do the print media. In 1975 all private radio broadcasting, except the church-owned Rádio Renascença, was nationalized. The reprivatization process has paralleled that of other industries. Radio broadcasting is dominated by two networks: Rádio Renascença, which offers both national and regional programming, and the state-run Radiodifusão Portuguesa (RDP), which has regional centres throughout the country and produces an international service (Radio Portugal). Ownership reform came much more slowly to television broadcasting, which since its inception had been limited to the state-owned Rádio e Televisão de Portugal (RTP). In 1991 two private companies—one (Sociedade Independente de Comunicação; SIC) financed by a publishing group and the other by the Roman Catholic Church—received television broadcasting licenses. Another private television company is Televisão Independente (TVI). A number of private satellite and cable companies offer access to premium channels and foreign broadcast networks for a monthly fee. The news agency Lusa provides extensive national and world coverage.
Jose Shercliff Walter C. Opello Marion KaplanHistory of Portugal
Pre-Roman, Roman, Germanic, and Muslim periods
The earliest human remains found in Portugal are Neanderthal-type bones from Furninhas. A distinct culture first emerged in the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) middens of the lower Tagus valley, dated about 5500 bce. Neolithic (New Stone Age) cultures entered from Andalusia, leaving behind varied types of beehive huts and passage graves. Agriculture, pottery, and the working of soft metals followed by the same route. In the 1st millennium bce, Celtic peoples entered the peninsula via the Pyrenees, and many groups were projected westward by natural pressure. Phoenician and later Carthaginian influence reached southern Portugal in the same period. By 500 bce, Iron Age cultures predominated in the north. Celtic hilltop settlements (castros) retained their vitality after the Roman conquest.
After the Second Punic War (218–201 bce), Rome dominated the eastern and southern seaboards of the Iberian Peninsula, and Celtic peoples who had partially absorbed the indigenous population occupied the west. A Celtic federation, the Lusitani, resisted Roman penetration under the brilliant leadership of Viriathus; however, after Viriathus was assassinated about 140 bce, Decius Junius Brutus led a Roman force northward through central Portugal, crossed the Douro River, and subdued the Gallaeci. Julius Caesar governed the territory for a time. In 25 bce Caesar Augustus founded Augusta Emerita (Mérida) as the capital of Lusitania, which incorporated present-day central Portugal. Gallaecia (Galicia), to the north of the Douro, became a separate province under the Antonines. In Roman times the present-day districts of Beja and Évora formed a wheat belt. The valley of the Tagus was famous for its horses and farms, and there were important mines in the Alentejo. Notable Roman remains include the Temple of Diana at Évora and the site of Conimbriga (Condeixa). Christianity reached Lusitania in the 3rd century and Galicia in the 4th.
After 406 ce, foreign invaders forced their way into Gaul and crossed the Pyrenees. A Germanic tribe, the Suebi, settled in southern Galicia, and their rulers resided at or near Bracara Augusta (Braga) and Portucale. The Suebi annexed Lusitania and for a time overran the rest of the peninsula, but the Visigoths subdued them and extinguished their monarchy in 469. There are no records until about 550, when the Suebic monarchy had been restored and was reconverted to Catholicism by St. Martin of Braga. When Muslim forces invaded in 711, the only serious Gothic resistance was made at Mérida; upon its fall the northwest submitted. Berber troops were placed in central Portugal and Galicia. When ʿAbd al-Raḥmān I set up the Umayyad monarchy at Córdoba in 756, there was some resistance in the west; indeed, Lisbon was independent for a few years in the early 9th century. The restoration of the Christian sees of Galicia, the discovery of the supposed tomb of St. James, and the erection of his shrine at Santiago de Compostela (Santiago) were followed by the organization of the frontier territory of Portucale in 868 by Vimara Peres; Coimbra was annexed by the Christians but later was lost again.
The county and kingdom of Portugal to 1383
By the 10th century the county of Portugal (north of the Douro) was held by Mumadona Dias and her husband Hermenegildo Gonçalves and their descendants, one of whom was tutor and father-in-law to the Leonese ruler Alfonso V. However, when this dynasty was overthrown by the Navarrese-Castilian house of Sancho III Garcés (Sancho the Great), the western county lost its autonomy. Sancho’s son Ferdinand I of Castile reconquered Coimbra in 1064 but entrusted it to a Mozarabic governor. When the African Almoravids annexed Muslim Spain, Alfonso VI, who ruled Castile and León (1072–1109), provided for the defense of the west by calling on Henry, brother of Duke Eudes (Odo) of Burgundy, whom he married to his illegitimate daughter Teresa and made count of Portugal. Thus, from 1095 Henry and Teresa (who used the title of queen) ruled Portugal and Coimbra. Upon Alfonso VI’s death, his realms passed to his daughter Urraca, who was queen from 1109 to 1126, and her little son Alfonso (who became Alfonso VII upon Urraca’s death). Henry of Portugal sought power but had achieved little when he died in 1112, leaving Teresa with an infant son, Afonso Henriques (later Afonso I). Teresa’s intrigues with her Galician favourite, Fernando Peres of Trava, lost her the support of the Portuguese barons, and in 1128 followers of Afonso Henriques defeated her and drove her into exile.
Afonso Henriques became count of Portugal, and, although he was at first obliged to submit to Alfonso VII, his cousin, Afonso began to use the title of king, according to tradition following on his victory over the Muslims at Ourique on July 25, 1139 (though this may be more legend than history). In 1143 Alfonso VII accepted his cousin’s autonomy, but the title of king was formally conceded only in 1179, when Afonso Henriques placed Portugal under the direct protection of the Holy See, promising an annual tribute. Afonso had captured Santarém (March 1147) and Lisbon (October 1147), the latter with the aid of English, French, German, and Flemish Crusaders bound for Palestine. An English priest, Gilbert of Hastings, became the first bishop of the restored see of Lisbon.
Although the new Moroccan dynasty of the Almohads struck back (1179–84), the Portuguese frontier was firmly established on the Tagus when Afonso I died (December 6, 1185). The new military order, the Templars—including those of Calatrava (from c. 1156) and of Santiago (from c. 1170)—governed castles and territory on the frontier, and the Cistercians were responsible for the introduction of agriculture and architecture in central Portugal (Alcobaça).
