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Portugal occupies one-sixth of the Iberian Peninsula at Europe’s southwestern perimeter. To its north and east is Spain, which makes up the rest of the peninsula; to the south and the west is the Atlantic Ocean; and to the west and southwest lie the Azores (Açores) and the Madeira Islands, which are part of metropolitan Portugal. Portugal is not a large country, but it offers a great diversity of physical geography, ranging from low-lying coasts and plains to the Estrela Mountains, which rise to nearly 6,500 feet (2,000 metres).
With Spanish Galicia, northern Portugal comprises the mountainous border of the Meseta (the block of ancient rock that forms the core of the Iberian Peninsula); southern Portugal also contains extensive areas of limestone and other sedimentary strata, mostly plateaus or plains. Other physical features link Portugal with Spain: its major rivers—Douro, Tagus (Rio Tejo), Guadiana—rise in the central Meseta before draining west (or, in the case of the Guadiana, south) to the Atlantic, while the proximity of the Meseta affects the climate and increases the rainfall of the northern Portuguese interior, contributing to that region’s verdant vegetation. Southern Portugal, however, is predominantly Mediterranean both in vegetation and in climate. Despite Portugal’s remarkable scenic diversity, the essence of its relief and underlying geology can be described under three headings: the north, the northern interior, and the south. The old coastal provinces of Beira Litoral and Estremadura are transitional in cultural landscape, vegetation, and climate but southern in relief and geology.
In order to discuss Portugal’s physiographic regions, however, it is necessary to consider the provincial divisions of the country that no longer exist as administrative entities but that survive as important geographical designations. Although superseded by several planning regions and districts (see below Local government) that now organize Portugal, six provinces have traditionally divided the country since the Middle Ages (though these never served as administrative units): Minho, located between the Minho and Douro rivers; Trás-os-Montes, bounded by Spain (north and east), by the gorges of the Douro River (south), and by the mountains (west); Beira, extending from the Douro River in the north to the Tagus in the southeast and from the border with Spain to the Atlantic Ocean; Estremadura, containing Lisbon; the Alentejo, covering south-central Portugal; and the Algarve, in southern Portugal. From 1933 to 1959, mainland Portugal also was officially further divided into 11 new provinces that were created on a geographic and economic basis: the Algarve, the Alto (Upper) Alentejo, the Baixo (Lower) Alentejo, Beira Alta (Upper Beira), Beira Baixa (Lower Beira), Beira Litoral, Douro Litoral, Estremadura, Minho, Ribatejo, and Trás-os-Montes e Alto (Upper) Douro.
Relief
Less than one-eighth of Portugal rises above 2,300 feet (700 metres). Most of the country’s mountains are north of the Tagus River, which flows northeast to southwest and divides the country. North of the Tagus, more than nine-tenths of the land rises above 1,300 feet (400 metres); in the south, only one range, São Mamede, surpasses 3,200 feet (1,000 metres).
North
In the northwest the mountains of the Minho province, surmounted by the Larouco Mountains, which rise to 5,010 feet (1,527 metres), form an amphitheatre facing the Atlantic Ocean. The area is composed of metamorphic rocks (crystalline schists, slates, and quartzites) and intrusive or granitic rocks, marked by fault lines that give rise to hot springs. Rolling plateaus and deeply entrenched streams characterize the relatively fertile granitic regions; the schist outcrops offer poor soils. Between the ridges, rivers such as the Lima and the Cávado flow through deep gorges or in flat-floored valleys. The narrow coastal strip is backed by hills that rise steeply to 1,000 to 2,000 feet (300 to 600 metres).
Northern interior
Beyond the mountains of the Minho is Trás-os-Montes, which is bordered on two sides by Spain. In the region south of the Douro, which is also the western extension of the Spanish Meseta, are Beira Alta and Beira Baixa.
In the north of the northern interior region are high plateaus (terra fria [“cold country”]) at 2,000 to 2,600 feet (600 to 800 metres) that are heavily faulted and composed largely of ancient Precambrian rock (more than 540 million years old), such as granites, schists, and slates. They form a rolling topography. The rivers follow lines of structural weakness and run northwest-southeast. After rejuvenation in the past 5 million years, they now flow in deep valleys and canyons that reach depths of as much as 1,600 feet (500 metres) below sea level. The singular monadnock of the Nogueira Mountains rises to 4,330 feet (1,320 metres) above the general plateau level.
A similar pattern of relief and geology is found south of the Douro, but the sheltered valleys of dark-coloured schists trap the heat of a Mediterranean climate, creating a terra quente (“hot country”). The high Beiras plain is bounded on the northwest by the Caramulo (3,527 feet [1,075 metres]) and Montemuro mountains (4,531 feet [1,381 metres]) and their foothills; the plain is flanked to the south and southeast by the granite and schist escarpment of the Estrela Mountains, which, together with the lower Guardunha Mountains (4,026 feet [1,227 metres]), represent the continuation in Portugal of the Central Sierras of Spain. Between the two ridges, the Guarda plateau has an average elevation of 3,000 feet (900 metres). The mountain chain extends southwestward to the Açor (4,652 feet [1,418 metres]) and Lousã mountains (3,953 feet [1,205 metres]). Farther south the eroded plateau of Beira Baixa drops from an elevation of 1,600 feet (500 metres) to 700 feet (200 metres) toward the Tagus River. It merges almost imperceptibly into the highlands of the Alto Alentejo.
South
Some three-fifths of Portugal’s land below 1,300 feet (400 metres) is found in the south. From the lower Douro to Lisbon and the lower Tagus, the plains—mainly Triassic sandstones—of the old western provinces of Beira Litoral and Estremadura descend to low-lying, sometimes marshy coasts. Shifting sands and dunes have been stabilized since the 19th century, but lagoons and salt marshes still characterize the river mouths (e.g., Aveiro Lagoon at the mouth of the Vouga River).
Inland, east and south of Leiria, Jurassic limestones interspersed with large areas of slightly younger Cretaceous sandstones and conglomerates have been eroded into rolling sandy hills and steep calcareous escarpments. Ancient volcanic activity has left basalt plateaus. Between the Tagus and the Guadiana, the Alto Alentejo is a continuation of the Spanish tablelands—a series of plateaus, either crystalline (Paleozoic Cambrian and Silurian schists), at 600 to 1,300 feet (180 to 400 metres) with poor soils except where outcrops of diorite have weathered into rich black soils, or limestone, with piedmont springs at their foot. North of Beja, in the Baixo Alentejo, ridges of quartz and marble oriented northwest-southeast account for a monotonously undulating relief between 300 and 600 feet (90 and 180 metres). This terminates in the east with the schistose Caldeirão Mountains (1,893 feet [577 metres]). Sheltered by the mountains from northern climatic influences are the more extensive scarps and hills of the Algarve. These are composed of limestones and sandstones of the Mesozoic Era. The Monchique Mountains, a dissected massif of intrusive igneous rock (syenite), rise to 2,959 feet (902 metres) at Mount Foia.