The effect of the Persian Wars on philosophy

The effect of the Persian Wars on literature and art was obvious and immediate; the wars prompted such poetry as the Persians of Aeschylus and a dithyramb of Pindar praising the Athenians for laying the shining foundations of liberty and such art as the Athenian dedications at Delphi or the paintings in the Painted Colonnade at Athens itself.

Less direct was the effect of the Persian Wars on philosophy. It has already been noted that famous centres of philosophy, such as Elea and Abdera, owed their existence to the Persian takeover of Ionia in 546. The thinkers for which those places were famous, Parmenides of Elea and Democritus from Abdera, were, however, products of the 5th century, and the title of “school” has been claimed both for the atomists of Abdera and for the Eleatics, who argued for the unreality of all change. A number of Ionian thinkers arrived at Athens after Xerxes’ invasion perhaps because 5th-century Ionia experienced relative material poverty and was thus no longer an agreeable place or perhaps because they had escaped from the Persian army, into which they had been conscripted. This has been suggested for Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, who impressed Socrates by identifying mind as the governing power of the universe.

Another 5th-century Ionian who found his way to Athens was Hippodamus of Miletus, an eccentric political theorist, who made his own clothes and was famous for a theory of town planning. However, the laying out of cities on “orthogonal,” or rectilinear, principles cannot quite be his invention (though he gave his name to such “Hippodamian” plans): such layouts are already found in Italy in the Archaic period at places like Metapontum. Hippodamus, nevertheless, may have had a hand in the orderly rebuilding of the port of Piraeus after the Persian Wars and even in the new colony at Thurii in 443. (A tradition associating him with the planning of the new city of Rhodes, almost at the end of the century, surely stretches his life span beyond belief.)

The more-theoretical side of Hippodamus’s political thought did not have much detectable effect on the world around him (he thought that communities should be divided into farmers, artisans, and warriors) except perhaps for his suggestion that a city of 10,000 souls, a myriandros polis, was the ideal size. That was the number of colonists allegedly sent out to Heraclea in Trachis by the Spartans, and the concept of the myriandros polis was to be very influential in the 4th century and Hellenistic period.

The rise of democracy

It has been plausibly claimed that there is a general link between the rise of a political system, namely democracy, and the self-critical speculative thinking that characterizes the Greeks in and to some extent before the 5th century. Democracy, it is held, was causally responsible for the growth of philosophy and science, in the sense that an atmosphere of rational political debate conduced to a more-general insistence on argument and proof. To this it has been objected that there are already, in the Homeric poems, remarkable debates constructed on recognizable rhetorical principles and that Nestor in the Iliad defines a good leader as one who is a good speaker of words and doer of deeds, in that order. Great warriors always needed to be persuasive speakers as well. But political accountability was a cardinal principle of the Ephialtic reforms at Athens in the late 460s, and it is certainly attractive to suppose that intellectual accountability was a parallel or consequent development.

A further difficulty in assessing the relationship between intellectual activities consists in the lopsided ways in which the relevant evidence has survived. First, little is extant from any centre other than Athens, and this inevitably means that a treatment of 5th-century culture tends to turn into a treatment of Athenian culture. One can note the problem but not solve it. Second, some literary genres have survived more intact than others. Attic tragedy and comedy survive in relative abundance (the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and the comedies of Aristophanes). The study of philosophy before Plato is, by contrast, a matter of detective work conducted from fragments preserved by later writers, whose own faithfulness in quotation and transmission may be suspect because of their own prejudices. (Christian apologists have perhaps been too readily trusted in this matter by students of the “pre-Socratics,” or predecessors and contemporaries of Socrates.)

Hippocrates and the fluidity of genres

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One set of texts that does survive in bulk and is neither Athenian in origin nor the work of poets is the Hippocratic corpus of medical writings. Hippocrates was a 5th-century native of the Dorian island of Cos, but the writings that have survived are probably not his personal work. Many of them contain references to northern Greek places such as Thasos and Abdera, a reminder that intellectual activity went on outside Athens.

The most-striking feature of these writings, apart from the exactness of their descriptive passages, is their rhetorically conditioned polemical character. It was necessary for the practicing doctor not merely to offer the best prognosis and cure but to disparage his rivals and show by aggressive and competitive argumentation that his own approach was superior. In fact, it seems that on one specific major medical issue the “professional” doctors did not fare as well as an amateur commentator, the historian Thucydides, who in his description of the great plague was aware, as they were not, of the concepts of acquired immunity and contagion. In other words, he thought empirically and they did not. A basically competitive attitude as well as reliance on rhetoric are features of much early prose writing; for example, Hecataeus was criticized by Herodotus, who was in turn criticized by implication, though never named, by Thucydides.

Such shared features are a reminder that the 5th century, before the systematization of the 4th century associated with Aristotle or the organized Alexandrian scholarship of the 3rd, did not yet make clear distinctions between literary genres. A distinction between prose and verse is perhaps implied by Thucydides’ distinction between “poets” and “logographers,” or writers of logoi (tales, accounts), and Pindar may hint at the same distinction. Thucydides’ own writings, however, like those of Herodotus, show an affinity to poetry, specifically to the epic poems of Homer. Indeed, an indebtedness to epic poetry is common both to the writings of Thucydides and to the Attic tragedy of the 5th century (it seems preferable to speak of shared influence of epic poetry on both the writers of tragedy and Thucydides rather than of direct influence of tragedy on Thucydides). And as noted, one now needs, since the discovery of the “new Simonides,” to reckon with the influence on historiography of praise poetry about real military events.