- Related Topics:
- Podocarpaceae
- Cupressaceae
- Pinaceae
- Cordaitales
- Cordaitopsida
All conifers are pollinated by wind. Pollen may be produced in enormous quantities, particularly by species of true pine (Pinus), which can blanket the surface of nearby lakes and ponds with a yellow scum of pollen (the pollen can cause allergies in humans). The pollen grains of many Pinaceae and Podocarpaceae have air bladders, which orient them in a pollination droplet exuded by the ovules so that, when the droplet is withdrawn back into the ovule, the pollen tube will penetrate the nucellus to the archegonium. The pollen grains of families that lack prothallial cells are more or less spherical, lack air sacs, and can extend a pollen tube anywhere on their surface so that precise orientation is unnecessary. Some conifers lack a pollination droplet mechanism. Douglas fir pollen grains land on an enlarged, stigmalike growth of the micropyle, from which the pollen tubes grow into the nucellus and archegonium. The pollen grains of the Araucariaceae land on the scales of the female cone, and the pollen tubes reach the micropyle by burrowing into the cone scales.
Fertilization and embryogeny
The processes of gametophyte growth and maturation in conifers is slow. The time from pollination to fertilization can exceed a year. After passing through the nucellus, the pollen tube presses between the neck cells of the archegonium and ruptures to release the tube nucleus, sterile cell, and the two male gametes (sperm). The ventral canal cell seems to help the male gametes enter the egg. One of the sperm fertilizes the egg nucleus to form the zygote, the first cell of the new sporophyte generation.
The conifer zygote has fewer free nuclear divisions than do Ginkgo or the cycads. While many divide twice to form four free nuclei in the centre of the egg cytoplasm, there may be from zero to six free nuclear divisions. The nuclei usually move away from the micropyle, and cell-wall formation accompanies further cell divisions. The embryo develops and is fed by the nutritive tissue of the female gametophyte. The embryo rapidly enlarges at the expense of the maternal tissue and initiates typical sporophytic organization, consisting at maturity of a single axis with a root apex at one end and a shoot apex at the other, surrounded by two to eight cotyledons.
Germination
The mature seed consists of the dormant embryo embedded in remnants of the female gametophyte and megasporangium (nucellus) and surrounded by a seed coat. The seed coat of conifers is similar to that of other gymnosperms, developing from an integument with three distinct layers. Only the hard middle stony layer is evident in most conifers, protecting the embryo between seed release and germination. The outer fleshy layer is most prominent in those conifers, such as Cephalotaxaceae and some Taxaceae, whose seeds are dispersed by animals. The inner fleshy layer functions in the early development of the ovule, but persists only as a thin, papery membrane in the mature seed.
Germination proceeds immediately upon dispersal to a suitable site in many tropical conifers, but most cool temperate species require a winter period of cold, moist stratification before they will germinate. After the embryo absorbs water, a seedling root breaks through the seed coat and turns down into the soil.
The stem below the cotyledons elongates and lifts them above the ground. As the cotyledons begin to photosynthesize, they produce the energy needed for the early growth of shoots. The seedling shoot is densely clothed with needle-shaped juvenile leaves for a varying time until adult foliage forms; some cedars of the family Cupressaceae produce their first flattened side shoots within just a few nodes, while the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) of the southeastern United States remains in a juvenile “grass” stage for years.
Form and function
The basic organization of the conifer sporophyte resembles that of other seed plants. The four main organs—stems, leaves, roots, and sporangia—are all usually distinct from one another and have well-defined physiological functions. The considerable variation that occurs in those organs is commensurate with the varied environments in which the different species grow.
