Major divisions

Soil and water sciences

Soil and water sciences deal with the geological generation of soil, soil and water physics and chemistry, and all other factors relevant to soil fertility. Soil science began with the formulation of the theory of humus in 1809. A generation later, Liebig introduced experimental science, including a theory of the supply of soil with mineral nutrients. In the 20th century a general theory of soil fertility developed, embracing soil cultivation, the enrichment of soil with humus and nutrients, and the preparation of soil in accordance with crop demands. Water regulation, principally drainage and irrigation, is also included.

Soil and water research have made possible the use of all classes of land in more effective ways, while the control of soil erosion and deterioration has made other advances even more striking. Because the amount of water available for plant growth is one of the major limiting factors in crop production, improved tillage and terracing practices have been devised to conserve soil moisture, and soil-management and land-use practices have been developed to increase the infiltration of snow, rain, and irrigation water, thereby reducing losses caused by runoff.

Public and private research into chemical fertilizers and soil management have made it possible for farmers to aid nature in making specific soils more productive. Much has been learned about using crop rotation, legumes, and green manure for replenishing soil humus and nitrogen; determining and supplying the major and minor nutrient needs of crops; and managing soil under irrigation, including salt control. Techniques based on these findings have been put to use on farms to improve soil fertility and increase crop yields. Between 1940 and 1965, for example, farmers in the United States more than tripled their use of chemical fertilizers, resulting in increases of 50 to 150 percent in crop yields. Soil and water research can also help limit the amount of runoff of artificial fertilizers into nearby bodies of water by timing their application with climatic conditions and using precise amounts in controlled applications. Agrochemical runoff remains a major source of water pollution, and further research is needed to improve practices and reduce the impact of industrial agriculture on the environment.

Scientists have used many sophisticated techniques to unlock a vast storehouse of knowledge about plants. In one case, chemicals tagged with radioactive isotopes were employed to follow the processes by which plants take up soil nutrients to synthesize their fruits, grains, vegetables, nuts, flowers, and fibres.

Plant sciences

The plant sciences include applied plant physiology, nutrition, ecology, breeding and genetics, pathology, and weed science, as well as crop management. They deal primarily with two major types of crops: (1) those that represent direct human food, such as cereals, vegetables, fruits, and nuts; and (2) those that serve as feed and forage for food, companion, laboratory, and recreational animals. Special branches of these sciences have developed to deal with each of the numerous classes of plant crops—e.g., vegetables, small fruits, citrus fruits and other tree fruits, and flowers and other ornamental plants. Other specialties concern the production of raw materials for industry—cotton, hemp, sisal, and silk—although some of these are losing economic importance in the face of competition from synthetic fibres. Branches of the plant sciences that deal with such tropical crops as coffee, tea, cocoa, bananas, coconuts, sugarcane, oil palm, and pineapples, to the contrary, promise to retain their importance.

Although scientifically based plant production came of age at the end of the 19th century, it started much earlier. Instructions on sowing dates are reported in Egypt by 2000 bce. Throughout the centuries, numerous treatises have included recommendations on how to achieve higher and more efficient yields.

The stimulus for the development of the plant sciences did not come from botany but from agricultural chemistry, the application of which led to the development of plant physiology. Field experiments were started in Rothamsted, England, in 1834, and elsewhere in Europe soon after. Improved methods of experiment design and statistical analysis made possible the comparative study of plants and their cultivation systems.

Cultivation of plants by varieties had already led in the late 18th century to the systematic selection of cereal varieties according to predicted yield. The rediscovery at the start of the 20th century of Gregor Mendel’s laws of heredity and later of ways to cause mutations led to modern plant breeding, with momentous results that included the tailoring of crop varieties for regions of climatic extremes. Agronomist Norman E. Borlaug was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace for 1970 for the development of short-stemmed wheat, a key element in the so-called Green Revolution in developing countries. In the 21st century, plant breeding and genetic engineering of drought- and heat-resistant crop varieties has become increasingly important as a tool to increase global food security in the face of more frequent extreme weather events due to anthropogenic climate change.

Major advances in the study of plant diseases were recorded in the 19th century, and the science of plant nutrition matured in the second quarter of the 1900s. Serious calamities resulting from the introduction of plant diseases into regions where the indigenous plants had no immunity against them, and the invasion of grapes by insects and of potatoes by late blight, stimulated research efforts. During the 20th century all diseases became objects of systematic plant pathology research. Plant pathologists search for chemical pesticides effective against microbial diseases, weeds, and various pests and seek to adjust the biotic balance to reduce losses. That chemical residues have created some health and environmental problems has led to further scientific activity. Biological control measures may ultimately be less harmful to the environment and more specific and effective in pest and weed management.

Other research has been undertaken because consumers want better and more diverse fruits and vegetables, including organic foods. New varieties have been developed, methods have been found to ensure that fresh and processed foods arrive at retail stores in prime condition, and grocers have learned to care for these foods so that consumers receive them in the most attractive and nutritious state. The preservation and development of historical and heirloom crop varieties is a growing field, as these genetic lines may have favourable traits, such as resistance to disease or drought or superior flavour, that can be useful for industrialized varieties or as potential alternative crops.