Invertebrates have developed a great many methods for protecting the fertilized egg and young embryo and for providing nutrients for the developing young. This is especially true of freshwater and terrestrial forms. Sponges and freshwater coelenterates, exposed to seasonal drying out, provide a tough covering for the eggs that prevents water loss. Many turbellarians envelop the eggs with a capsule and attach it to a hard surface, where it remains until the young emerge. Other turbellarians retain encapsulated eggs in the body until development is complete and the young emerge. All parasitic flatworms enclose their eggs in a protective capsule within which development occurs after it has left the parent’s body. Most nematodes and rotifers do likewise, but a few species are ovoviviparous; i.e., the egg hatches in the mother’s body. In many forms the amount of yolk provided in the egg and the nature of the egg capsule are correlated with annual seasons—summer eggs generally have less yolk and thinner capsules than do winter eggs. This is true also in a number of crustaceans. Freshwater and terrestrial annelids provide a cocoon for their young and often deposit it in a moist place. One group of leeches, however, does not form a cocoon; instead, the egg, surrounded by a protective membrane, is attached to the underside of the parent. As the young develop, the adult leech undulates its body so that water currents flow over the young. Presumably this serves as a means of aeration. Mollusks that live in freshwater may provide a protective covering for the eggs, or the eggs may be brooded by the female. Some pelecypods (bivalves) release mature eggs into their gill chambers; here the eggs are fertilized, and embryonic development is completed in a protected location. Cephalopods (e.g., squid, octopus) attach the eggs to a surface, then continuously force jets of water over the egg masses, thereby keeping them free of debris and perhaps aerating them. Some echinoderms also brood the eggs until the young emerge.

Arthropods have a particularly wide range of methods for ensuring offspring survival. Brood pouches, common in branchiopods, isopods, and amphipods, are sometimes part of the carapace, or back plate. In other instances, expanded plates on the lower side (sternum) form the pouches. Crayfish cement the fertilized eggs to their swimmerets (modified appendages) and carry them about as they are brooded by the female. The most elaborate provisions for the embryo are found among terrestrial arthropods, especially insects. Although some species simply deposit their eggs and abandon them, many retain the encapsulated egg within the body during early development. Some are viviparous; that is, they bear living young. The eggs of certain species of scorpions have little or no yolk; the embryo is nourished by the parent in a manner similar to that in mammals—part of the scorpion oviduct becomes modified as a uterus for the embryo; another part lies close to the female’s gut and absorbs nutritive substances that are conveyed to the developing young. A similar arrangement has evolved in some insects. Other viviparous insects nourish the larvae by glandular secretions from the uterine lining.