Cloud condensation nuclei

The formation and subsequent freezing of cloud droplets depend on the presence of cloud condensation nuclei and ice nuclei, respectively. Significantly, the biosphere is a major source of both of these kinds of nuclei. Over the continents, condensation nuclei are readily available and are of biogenic as well as anthropogenic origin. Examples of condensation nuclei include sea salt, small soil particles, and dust.

As atmospheric convection increases with the heating of the day, cloud condensation nuclei are mixed into and above the planetary boundary layer and into the troposphere. In the bottom 0.5 km (the lowest 1,600 feet or so) of the atmosphere, nuclei typically number 2.2 × 10¹⁰ per cubic metre. In the next 0.5 km (between 1,600 and 3,300 feet) above, half as many nuclei are found. The number of condensation nuclei continues to decline with increased altitude. Furthermore, in general, the number of nuclei in the air over land is 10 times higher than over the oceans.

Cloud condensation nuclei are generally abundant. They do not limit cloud formation over the continents; however, low numbers of condensation nuclei over the oceans may limit cloud formation there. In addition to natural sources, particulates from fuel combustion and sulfur dioxide gas resulting from high sulfur fuels also contribute to the load of condensation nuclei over the continents. Both the number and kind of condensation nuclei present in the atmosphere affect the cloudiness and the brightness of clouds in a given region. In this way, condensation nuclei play a significant role in determining both regional and global albedo.

There is a type of condensation nuclei that forms in the marine air over the margins of continents. Though these nuclei are often few in number, they play a large role in cloud formation near the coasts of continents and may contribute significantly to both planetary albedo and global average temperature. Typically, sources of condensation nuclei in marine air are sulfate aerosols formed from the biogenic production of dimethyl sulfide (DMS) by marine algae. Given that DMS production increases with sea surface temperatures, a negative feedback may result. The central idea in this feedback hypothesis is that warmer waters result in the increased production of condensation nuclei by phytoplankton and thus produce more clouds. Increased cloudiness shades the ocean surface and results in lower temperatures that limit condensation nuclei production. It is estimated that a 30 percent increase in marine condensation nuclei would increase planetary albedo by 0.005 (0.5 percent) or produce a 0.7 percent reduction in solar radiation and a planetary average temperature decrease of 1.3 °C (2.3 °F). The sensitivity of this negative feedback on planetary temperatures remains in active debate.

Biogenic ice nuclei

As water vapour condenses onto condensation nuclei, the droplets grow in size. Growth proceeds at relative humidity as low as 70 percent, but the rate of growth is very slow. Growth by condensation is most rapid where the air is slightly supersaturated with water vapour. At this point, cloud droplets typical of the size of fog droplets arise. Should temperatures fall to the level where freezing begins, the temperature difference between the droplet and the surrounding air (the vapour pressure deficit) strongly favours rapid condensation into the crystalline lattice of an ice particle. Ice particles that grow rapidly soon reach sizes where they begin to fall. As they fall, they collide and merge with smaller droplets and thereby grow larger.

The formation of ice is of critical importance. A droplet of pure water, such as distilled water, will automatically freeze in the atmosphere at a temperature of –40 °C (–40 °F). Freezing at warmer temperatures requires a substance upon which ice crystallization can take place. The common clay mineral kaolinite, a contaminant of the droplet, raises this freezing point to around –25 °C (–13 °F). Furthermore, silver iodide, often used in cloud seeding to encourage rainfall, and sea salts also cause ice to form at –25 °C. Freezing at still warmer temperatures is most common with biogenic ice nuclei. Upon ice formation, heat energy on the order of 80 calories per gram of water frozen are released. This energy increases the sensible heat of the air and causes the air to become more buoyant. The process of ice formation encourages convection, cloudiness, and precipitation from clouds.

The decomposition of organic matter is a major source of biogenic ice nuclei. Ice crystal formation has been shown to occur at temperatures as warm as –2 to –3 °C (28.5 to 26.6 °F) when biogenic ice nuclei are involved. The common freezing temperature for biogenic nuclei varies systematically according to biome and latitude. The coldest freezing-temperature nuclei occur above the tropics, whereas the warmest occur above the Arctic. Freezing produces greater buoyancy of the particles and helps them to reach higher vertical velocities within the clouds. The vertical motions and the larger droplet size that occur with biogenic materials favour the charge separation needed to produce lightning. Subsequently, oceanic areas with few biogenic ice nuclei are also areas of low lightning frequency. The production of biogenic nuclei from organic matter decomposition is greatest during the warm months when bacterial decomposition is greatest.

Recycled rainfall

The water that is transpired into the atmosphere from the biosphere is eventually returned to the surface as precipitation. This vegetation-transpiration component of the hydrologic cycle is referred to as “recycled rainfall.” While the oceans are the major source of atmospheric water vapour and rainfall, water from plant transpiration is also significant. For example, in the 1970s and ’80s, analyses performed by American meteorologist Michael Garstang on the city of Manaus, Brazil, in the Amazon basin revealed that around 20 percent of the precipitation came from water transpired by vegetation; the remaining 80 percent of this precipitation (an estimate made by German American meteorologist Heinz Lettau in the 1970s) was generated by the Atlantic Ocean. Isotopic studies of rainwater collected at various points in the Amazon basin indicated that nearly half of the total rain came from water originating in the ocean and half transpired through the vegetation. Evidence of the proportion of transpired water in rainfall reaching as high as 88 percent has been reported for the Amazon foothills of the Andes. General climate circulation models indicate that, without transpired water from plants, rainfall in the central regions of the continents would be greatly reduced. As a general rule, the farther the distance from oceanic water sources, the higher the fraction of rainwater originating from transpiration.