Complex electrochemical reactions
Electrochemical processes considered so far involve simple reactions of a particle with a single electron to produce a reduced ion (e.g., the ferrous ion of iron with two positive charges, Fe++), or vice versa. Such are the simple ionic redox processes, where the only difference in structure between a reactant and a reaction product may be due to some rearrangement of the neighbouring solvent molecules. When one or more transfers of electrons between the electrode and a species in solution are accompanied by major structural changes (e.g., when hydroxyl ions, OH−, transform into a molecule of oxygen, O2, and a water molecule, H2O, in the process of oxygen evolution at the anode, or positive electrode), the reaction usually consists of a sequence of events, called elementary acts, or unit steps, constituting the reaction mechanism. Intermediate states between the steps usually involve some unstable intermediate species with higher energy content than those of the reactants or of the reaction products.
Complex reaction mechanisms can consist of a number of electron transfer steps, with some chemical steps preceding or succeeding the electron transfer steps or taking place in between them. Most organic electrochemical reactions are complex, involving large numbers of electrons in the overall reaction. Usually one step in the reaction encounters the largest energy barrier. The rate of occurrence of this step limits the rate of the overall reaction (i.e., all other steps must occur at the same net rate, although they could provide for a much faster overall change). This step is called the rate-determining step and, for most practical purposes, all intermediate steps before and after it can be considered to be in equilibrium. (It is interesting to note that whenever this is the case, the Butler-Volmer equation is applicable, but with specific values of the transfer coefficients αa and αc characteristic of the mechanism of the reaction.)
Experimental studies
Measuring the rates of electrochemical reactions (i.e., current densities) as functions of electrode potential under steady-state conditions represents the normal tool of electrodics. Meaningful results could not be obtained, however, until the sensitivity of electrochemical reactions to impurities was realized and high purity techniques were introduced. Even so, the steady-state method often has shortcomings except for relatively slow electrode reactions. In many cases concentration changes at the electrodes prevent using a sufficiently wide current density range for obtaining meaningful Tafel relationships (see Butler-Volmer equation below under Calculations). Hence, so-called transient methods have been developed in which one electrochemical factor in the situation is rationally perturbed and the time dependence of others observed. One such method consists of placing a constant current pulse upon an electrode and measuring the variation of the resulting current through the solution. This is called the galvanostatic method for measuring the rate of an electrochemical reaction. Applying a potential pulse while observing the variation of the rate as a function of time constitutes the potentiostatic method. A third method, called the potentiodynamic, or potential sweep, method involves observations of the current as a function of the potential, while the latter is varied at a constant, known rate.
The advantages of transient methods over steady-state ones, in which behaviour before the attainment of the steady-state is not part of the observation, are manifold. If observations are made at sufficiently short times, events can be recorded before the onset of concentration changes, and pure activation values can be found. Hence, Tafel relationships can be obtained over a larger current density range (see below Calculations) than if one makes measurements over longer times, as is required in the steady-state methods. The structure of the transient states can reveal important information, such as double layer capacitance and surface coverage of the electrode by intermediate species.
Several so-called kinetic parameters, for example, partial derivatives of current density and potential with respect to concentration of chosen reactants, can be extracted from experimental measurements.
Electrochemical measurements have a limited capacity to reveal the state of an electrode surface. Nonelectrochemical methods of studying electrode surfaces, therefore, have been stressed. Optical methods have considerably gained in importance. Ellipsometry (i.e., measuring changes in basic properties of polarized light as it is reflected from an electrode surface) was the first method that made possible a study of monomolecular layers of oxides and adsorbed oxygen as adsorbed organic molecules. Adaptation of such a method to transient use allows change in the surface to be related to the passivity of metals. Another kind of spectroscopy enables infrared spectra of species adsorbed at electrode surface to be taken. Mössbauer spectra may lead to an identification of thin layers on an electrode surface. A good future is seen for further development of refined techniques for the study of electrochemical processes by various combinations of spectroscopic and electrochemical means.
Types of complex reactions
Electrocatalysis
The problems related to the increase of rates of electrochemical reactions, or, to put it another way, the decrease of overpotential, needed to perform reactions at a given rate are the subject of electrocatalysis. Both increase and decrease are of considerable practical importance since they affect the economics of electrochemical processes. Electrocatalysis is concerned with the electrode as a substrate, or base, for electrochemical reaction and with the effect of its bulk and surface properties on the rate of reaction. Contrary to expectation, the rate of the basic step in electrochemical reaction—electron transfer—is independent of the ease with which electrons are released from the metal. Hence, those simple electrode processes in which no other changes but electron transfer take place have heats of activation virtually independent of the metal substrate.
In a reaction involving the formation of a chemical bond between the electrode substrate and one of the radicals (charged particles) formed on the surface, rates of reaction at a given potential may vary for different substrates by many orders of magnitude. The variation is a function of the strength (or energy) of bonds established between the intermediate species and the surface, and when the substrates are transition metals, regular relations between reaction rate and certain characteristics of the metal’s electronic structure are observed. If such bonds are too weak, the catalytic effect of the substrate is small. If they are too strong, the intermediate species is too stable to react further, and the surface of the metal becomes virtually blocked for further reaction. Thus, there is an optimum bond strength that can be seen if the rate of a reaction is plotted against a property of the metal substrate, which is proportional to the ability of the surface to form bonds—e.g., its heat of sublimation.
Electrochemical reactions can also be catalyzed or inhibited by foreign species present in the electrolytic solution. In the most general case, ions can change the rates of reactions by changing the properties of the double layer by specific adsorption effects. Organic molecules inhibit electrochemical reaction by blocking the surface. For some organic ions or dipoles, the blocking effect can begin at a certain well-defined potential. Before attaining it, the electrode reaction gives the usual current density-potential relationship, which is then suddenly interrupted by an abnormal fall of the current, corresponding to adsorption.
Electrocrystallization
Deposition of metals and other substances at electrodes as a consequence of an electrode process exhibits a number of specific features. The electrode process is followed by crystal building, and this results in a continuous change of the electrode surface. This change, in turn, affects the electrochemical properties of the system—the double-layer capacity and the rate constants of the charge transfer processes. Hence, if electrochemical properties are to be studied, transient methods should be employed that allow measurements to be made before major changes in surface morphology (structure) take place.
Since the two steps, the discharge of ions at the electrode and the incorporation of the discharged ions into the crystal lattice, are separated in time and space, an intermediate species exists at the surface, that of relatively loosely bound and freely moving atoms, called adatoms. Since the electrons tend to join the rest in the bulk of the metal, adatoms appear to have a partial charge, less than that of the elementary positive charge. The adatoms therefore attract solvent molecules, and the species is partially solvated. This reaction justifies considering an adatom as a kind of adsorbed ion, called an adion, which, however, has already undergone partial discharge.
Because such an intermediate state is possible, ions need not be reduced to the neutral atomic state at the point of incorporation into the crystal lattice. Indeed, energy considerations reveal this reduction to be improbable. Instead, discharge of ions is favoured on crystal planes. Their motion from the location of discharge to a site on the crystal occurs by surface diffusion. When such surface diffusion is inhibited, it can, in some cases, control the rate of reaction.
Problems of the crystal-building step in electrocrystallization are in many respects identical with those of crystal growth from the gas phase. Crystal building can occur in any one of three possible ways.
Kinks, naturally existing at any metal surface, form a suitable half-lattice position at which an atom is surrounded by one-half of the number of atoms that would surround it in the bulk of the metal; there, adatoms can be successively trapped and thus the crystal lattice is extended along a crystal edge and further on across the surface. The mechanism, however, has a limited capacity for crystal growth. A step can move as far as the edge of a crystal, and step growth would lead to smoothing of the surface to perfection, but then further growth would cease.
Mechanisms associated with screw dislocations, or twinning edges, can provide for a continuous growth of crystals. The screw dislocation mechanism, shown in , is made possible by a specific fault often found in the crystal lattice that may be called a dislocation originating from a shift of one atom in the lattice with respect to a perfect arrangement. This shift may then result in the formation of a monoatomic edge projecting above the electrode surface at which new atoms can be stacked. The stacking produces a turning of the edge around the base atom as a centre, the process producing a spiral growth.
If growth sites are rare, or if the substrate at which deposition should take place is foreign to the depositing metal, the charge transfer results in an accumulation of adatoms to a concentration considerably larger than that which can exist there at equilibrium with the crystal lattice. In such a situation, termed supersaturation, agglomeration of adatoms to form crystal nuclei is favoured. Surface energy requirements show that, at any degree of supersaturation, nuclei of certain dimensions are stable and can represent sites for further growth, as shown in .
The formation of deposits is controlled by the above mechanism as long as the discharge process supplies ample amounts of adatoms as building material over the entire surface. If the rate of deposition is increased, so as to produce near the surface considerable depletion of ions, uneven deposition will start. This is caused by the protrusions of a normally rough metal surface being closer to the bulk of solution than the recessed parts and, hence, getting a somewhat faster supply of the discharging species. Once such a situation is established, it tends to develop further. The faster growing points penetrate into ever richer layers of solution, resulting in ever faster growth. Thus, a natural consequence of deposition under transport-controlled rate is the amplification of the original surface roughness and the appearance of protruding spikes, called dendrites, as deposits.
A converse process is the smoothing of the original surface irregularities, which may occur when some foreign species, called an additive, is present in solution and adsorbs on the surface and inhibits the process of discharge. If those molecules are incorporated into a growing deposit, a situation may arise in which their supply to recessed parts of the surface becomes slower than to elevated parts. As a result, deposition becomes faster at recessed parts than at elevated ones and leveling of the surface occurs. This process has considerable technical application. Metal dissolution can sometimes be governed by a similar, transport-controlled mechanism, in which case a polishing effect is obtained. Electropolishing has found wide application in practice.
Organic electrode reactions
A very large number of electrochemical reactions involving organic molecules are known. An example is the oxidation of ethylene according to the equation:
Many chemical organic reactions can be made to function electrochemically, a general advantage being that the rate of the reaction is easily controlled by controlling the potential. A change of potential may change the path of the reaction and hence a certain product may be tuned in. In particular, polymerization reactions at electrodes can be stimulated; such a method is used as a step in the production of nylon.
Multielectrode systems
So far, systems have been considered in which a single electrode process takes place. In principle, at any electrode potential all species present in the system fall into two categories: those that are stable, and those that undergo oxidation or reduction. The stable species are those that at the given electrode potential would not decrease their free energy by giving off or accepting electrons.
At any potential there should occur a codischarge of all unstable species. Thus, the system can be considered as a multielectrode system, consisting of as many electrodes as there are redox couples present. The rate at which different processes occur, however, can be so widely different that usually a single process is by far the dominant one. Systems at which two electrode processes occur at comparable rates are of considerable importance. If two kinds of metal ions are discharged simultaneously, an alloy is formed upon crystallization. The properties of the alloy would in most cases be those determined by the phase diagram (a plot of the temperature of melting versus the composition of the mixed system) for the ratio of quantities of discharged metals given by the rates at which the discharges take place. In many cases, nonequilibrium metal phases are formed giving unusual properties to the alloy.
If a process of metal dissolution (an oxidation process) can occur at a rate comparable to that of some reduction process on the same metal, a corrosion couple is established. Thus, zinc immersed in acid solution tends to establish a potential sufficiently positive for the metal to eject metal ions into the solution (oxidation). At the same time, it is also sufficiently negative for the reduction of hydrogen ions, present in any aqueous solution, to hydrogen gas. Hence, a spontaneous process of hydrogen evolution and of dissolution of the metal will take place. The rate at which this corrosion process occurs is governed by rate laws of the type given by equation (3) (see below Calculations). The mixed potential, spontaneously established by the corroding metal, is obtained by equating expressions for the anodic and cathodic currents of the two processes in the corrosion couple.
Corrosion can be prevented in two ways. One is by using an external source to make the potential of the metal sufficiently negative to bring it into the potential region in which the metal is stable, called cathodic protection; and the other is by provoking by some means the formation of a film on the surface that would slow the process. Such films could consist of an oxide or a layer of organic molecules that prevents dissolution and hence is called an inhibitor.