In the evolutionary sense, reptiles are the first truly terrestrial vertebrates, since they have dispensed with an aqueous environment for their larval development. Their main problem is to prevent desiccation by water loss through the skin. This is solved by the possession of a thick stratum corneum in which waxes are arranged in membranelike layers between the keratinized cells. Reptilian scales are overlapping folds of skin, each scale having an outer surface, an inner surface, and a hinge region. All the epidermal and dermal surfaces of each scale are continuous with those of the next scale.

The cornified part of the epidermis is strengthened by a stiff material, beta keratin, which is present in place of or in addition to pliable alpha keratin. In crocodiles and many turtles the outer scale surface consists of beta keratin only, while the hinge region contains only alpha keratin. In lizards and snakes, however, both keratins form continuous layers, the alpha keratin lying below the beta keratin. In crocodiles and turtles there is continuous cell division in the stratum germinativum and exfoliation of cells at the skin surface. In snakes and lizards the germinal layer forms a complete new epidermal surface before the whole of the old cornified epidermis is sloughed, either in a single sheet or in portions.

The shape and size of the scales vary in the different families and with the mode of life. Maximum flexibility of the skin is achieved in some forms by reduction of the scales to small, nonoverlapping granules. Among desert dwellers there is a tendency for some scales, particularly those on the head and tail, to be enlarged to form spines. Burrowing and secretive forms have a slippery body surface because of the presence of smooth, highly polished scales. The skin is often reinforced by bony plates, which lie beneath the superficial scales (though corresponding with them in size and shape); these plates may form a continuous protective armour. Other defensive, or sometimes offensive, devices associated with the skin and scales are the occasional development of horns or fringing folds that break up the animal’s outline and colouring.

The colours of reptiles are produced by both melanocytes in the epidermis and three types of chromatophores in the dermis: melanophores, which contain melanin; xanthophores, which contain yellow pigments; and iridophores, which contain reflecting platelets of colourless guanine. The pattern may be fixed, for concealment by camouflage, or the chromatophores may provide for rapid colour change.

Reptilian skin possesses glands, but they are usually small. Most are holocrine; some are tubular. Lizards and snakes have small glands that are related to the sloughing cycle, and all groups of reptiles appear to communicate by scent glands. For example, chelonians (turtles and tortoises) have glands in the throat, inguinal, and axillary regions, and snakes have saclike scent glands at the base of the tail.

Birds

The avian epidermis is thin, delicate, and clothed in feathers, except on the obviously naked areas of the legs, feet, beak, comb, and wattle. On the legs and feet, and sometimes elsewhere, the cornified layer is thickened to form scales of several types. The dermis, also thin, consists mostly of a network of connective tissue fibres and muscle fibres that help to adjust the feathers. In larger birds, such as the ostrich, the skin is thick enough to allow it to be processed into leather. The scales resemble those of reptiles in possessing layers containing beta keratin and alpha keratin.

Feathers, which consist of beta keratin, are considered to have evolved from reptilian scales (Figure 2). They are periodically molted, and other keratinized structures such as the bill and claws may be molted as well. Pigment is primarily restricted to feathers and scales. Specialized nerve endings are present throughout the skin. Various holocrine and tubular glands have been observed, but nearly all are small and inconspicuous. The exception is the holocrine uropygial gland, or preen gland, which is located on the back just in front of the tail and secretes oil for grooming the feathers. It is largest in aquatic birds.

Feathers are unique to birds. Those of adults are admirably engineered to be lightweight yet strong. They are of three basic types, each associated with certain functions. Contour feathers (including the flight and tail feathers) define the body outline and serve as aerodynamic devices; filoplumes (hair feathers) and plumules (down feathers) are used principally as insulation, to conserve body heat. Colours and patterns in feathers serve as protective coloration or for sexual display.

In most birds contour feathers are not uniformly distributed over the surface of the body but are arranged in feather tracts (pterylae) separated from one another by regions of almost naked skin (apteria). The only exceptions are the ostrichlike birds, the penguins, and the South American screamers, in which the even distribution of plumage has probably been secondarily acquired. Feather tracts differ in arrangement in different species and hence are useful in the classification of birds.

The wing tract includes the flight feathers proper (remiges) and their coverts (tectrices). The remiges include the primaries, arising from the “hand” and digits and attached to the hand’s skeleton; the secondaries, arising from the forewing and attached to the ulna; and the tertials (when present), arising from the upper wing and attached to the humerus. The tectrices cover the bases of the remiges, overlapping and decreasing in size toward the leading edge of the wing.

The spinal (dorsal) tract extends the whole length of the bird, excepting the head, along and on both sides of the spinal column. In gallinaceous birds this tract may be subdivided from front to back (though not separated by apteria) into the regions of the hackle, the cape, the back, and the saddle. Each region is distinguished by the form and pattern of its constituent feathers.

On the ventral surface of the bird are paired breast tracts, with a ventral tract between them. The tail tract includes the tail feathers (rectrices) and their coverts. Other tracts cover the head, base of the wings, and legs.

A contour feather of an adult bird tends to be almost bilaterally symmetrical. It consists of a tapering central shaft, the rachis, to which are attached a large number of tapering parallel barbs. These in turn carry many minute elongated barbules on both their distal and proximal faces. The distal barbules bear tiny hooklets (hamuli) that fit into grooves on the proximal barbules of the next higher barb. In this way the barbules overlap and interlock to form the coherent web, or vane, of the feather. Barbules in the basal portions of feathers are long, delicate threads and do not bind successive barbs together; consequently, this part of the feather is fluffy.

The filoplumes, which arise at the bases of contour feathers, are inconspicuous hairlike feathers bearing a small tuft of barbs at their apexes. Filoplumes appear to be present in all birds, but only in certain species do they project beyond the contour feathers—on the thighs of cormorants, for example.

Plumules are present in young birds before they develop the adult plumage. In adults the plumules are generally scant and are concealed by contour feathers; however, in many birds, such as gulls and ducks, they form a thick, insulating undercovering comparable to the underfur of seals. Their barbs do not form coherent vanes but are long, loose, soft, and fluffy. Their structure is much simplified, and a rachis may be entirely lacking. In herons and some hawks the tips of the plumules disintegrate into a fine scaly powder that becomes distributed over the plumage, providing protection against wetting and giving it a peculiar sheen; accordingly, these specialized down feathers are called powder down.

Feathers get their colours from a number of pigments. Melanin is responsible for black, gray, brown, and related tints; yellow or reddish brown granules of phaeomelanin and dark brown granules of eumelanin are transferred to the epithelial cells of the feather from melanocytes. Some feathers are coloured bright yellow, vivid red, green, violet, or blue by carotenoids and other rare pigments. Cosmetic coloration of the feathers by the secretion of the preen gland is exploited by pelicans. Not all coloration requires pigments. The striking white of sea gulls and swans is a “structural colour” produced by the reflection of light by irregularly distributed air-filled cavities. Blue, green, and violet can also be structurally produced, as, for example, in kingfishers and parrots.