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- G. Evelyn Hutchinson
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The water budget
The role of lakes within the global hydrologic cycle has been described earlier. Lakes depend for their very existence upon a balance between their many sources of water and the losses that they experience. This so-called water budget of lakes is important enough to have warranted considerable study throughout the world, with each lake or lake system possessing its own hydrologic idiosyncrasies. Aside from being of scientific interest, water budget studies serve to reveal the dependence of each lake on particular hydrologic factors, thus enabling better management practices. These may include restrictions on water utilization during drought conditions, dike construction and evacuations prior to flooding, control of water levels to ensure efficient power production, and major decisions associated with diversions of watercourses in order to enhance water-quantity and water-quality management activities.
While people may accommodate to predicted imbalances in the hydrologic budget, it is usually difficult to influence the basic natural factors that cause the imbalances. Precipitation and evaporation, for the most part, are uncontrollable, although some advances have been made in evaporation suppression from small lakes through the use of monomolecular surface films. Groundwater flow is not controllable, except where highly restricted flow can be tapped. Rivers and streams, however, can be subjected to regulation by well-established practices through the use of dams, storage reservoirs, and diversions. It is mainly through these controls that efforts are made to make the most efficient usage of water as a resource.
When engineers take steps to alter elements of a basin’s water budget, careful consideration must be given to the consequences of the hydrology and ecology of the entire watershed. Dredging operations for the purpose of harbour clearance or improvements to a navigable channel, for example, may increase the outflow from an upstream lake, increase shore erosion, or regenerate undesirable sedimentary constituents into the lake or river water. The damming of a river or a lake outlet to increase local water storage may also result in undesirable effects, such as an increased evaporation from the larger surface area, the restriction of fish movement, or changes in the thermal climate of the downstream flow. Diversions and dam-site construction may also result in flooding of important bird breeding areas or a lowering of other lakes in the system, resulting in undesirable consequences.
Water input
The usual major input of water to a lake derives from streams and rivers, precipitation, and groundwater. In some cases inflow may come directly from glacier melt. The relative importance of each of the major sources varies from lake to lake.
Stream and river flow are usually seasonally variable, depending upon precipitation cycles and snowmelt. At low altitudes some rivers exhibit a peak during a high precipitation period in winter and then a second peak associated with a subsequent spring snowmelt that feeds the nearby high-altitude tributaries. In regions where precipitation can occur in great quantities at high rates, streams swell quickly and water is delivered in relatively large volumes to downstream lakes.
A great deal of work has been done to improve the ability to measure and record streamflow. Consequently, it is usually the most accurately known of the inflow terms in the water budget. Most frequently, the height of the river level (stage) correlates well with the water discharge. In other cases, direct river-flow measurements are taken periodically with flow meters.
Precipitation reaching a lake’s surface directly may be the major input; this is true of Lake Victoria, in eastern Africa. In other cases, where the lake basin is large with well-developed drainage to a deep lake of small surface area, precipitation may be a small component. Precipitation that falls elsewhere in the lake basin may reach the lake through either surface or groundwater flow, or it may be lost due to evapotranspiration.
Measurements or estimates of precipitation for a basin are difficult to achieve. Even where elaborate networks of rain gauges exist or where these are supplemented by meteorological radar installations, total basin-precipitation data are still considered to be poor. Measurements of direct precipitation over lakes are exceedingly rare; this situation is especially serious in the case of a large lake for which nearby land data are not necessarily representative of conditions over the lake. Each climatic region throughout the world has its typical precipitation pattern, and the lakes within the regions are affected accordingly.
Groundwater reaches lakes either through general seepage or through fissures (springs). Groundwater is taken to be water in that zone of saturation that has as its surface the water table. The depth of the water table can be determined by digging a well into the saturated zone and noting the level of water—unless the water is under pressure, in which case it will rise in the well to a level above the water table. Clearly, it is possible for a lake level to coincide with the water table. In fact, unless impermeable material intervenes, the water table will drop to, rise to, or lie level with a lake surface. Groundwater that is lost from the saturated zone to a lake is termed groundwater discharge. Groundwater introduced to the saturated zone from a lake is termed recharge. The rate at which groundwater is exchanged between a lake and the saturated zone depends mainly upon the level of the water table and the pressure conditions within the saturated zone.
In permeable materials the zone above the water table is called the zone of aeration, and water within it is called soil moisture. Soil moisture is classified into three types: hygroscopic water adsorbed on the surface of soil particles, water held by surface tension in capillary spaces in the soil and moving in response to capillary forces, and water that drains through the soil under gravitational influence. The latter will most significantly contribute to groundwater recharge and to the water balance of a lake. The second category will generally be subject to loss due to transpiration by plants.
Water output
Lakes that have no outlets, either above or below surface, are termed closed lakes, whereas those from which water is lost through surface or groundwater flows are called open lakes. Closed lakes, therefore, lose water only through evaporation. In these cases, the loss of water that is less saline than the source water results in an increasing lake salinity.
Evaporation results from a vertical gradient of vapour pressure over the water surface. Next to the water surface, saturation conditions exist that are a function of the temperature at the interface. The vapour pressure in the air above the surface is calculated from the temperature of the air and the wet-bulb temperature. The rate at which evaporation occurs also depends upon the factors that affect the removal of the saturated air above the surface, such as wind speed and thermal convection.
Studies of evaporation must surely constitute a sizable proportion of all hydrological and oceanographic work. The principal categories of evaporation studies are water budget, energy budget, bulk aerodynamic techniques, and direct measurements of vapour flux (see hydrosphere).
The so-called aerodynamic technique is based upon Dalton’s formula, which correlates evaporation with the product of the vapour pressure gradient and the wind speed. Studies during the past 20 years have produced a host of variations of this equation, determined empirically using independent measurements of evaporation. One of the most often used of these was developed in a study of Lake Hefner, and even this work has been subsequently modified to suit other climates and conditions. Few workers are satisfied with the present state of the art in the use of the aerodynamic equations. Nevertheless, once an equation of this type is satisfactorily developed for a particular lake, having been checked with independent methods, it is attractive because it usually employs data that can be routinely observed.
The direct measurement of vapour fluxes is an extremely intricate proposition, as motions over a water surface are usually turbulent, and instruments capable of measuring rapidly changing vertical motions and humidities are required. Not the least of the difficulties is the likelihood that the kind of turbulence over large bodies far from land is significantly different from that over land. Recent advances in theoretical developments and instrumentation continue to encourage this type of study. In turn, successes in this field offer the opportunity for the refinement of empirical techniques more practically suited for general lake investigators.
In many lake studies, data from evaporation pans have been used to determine lake evaporation. Pans have even been developed for flotation on lakes. Pans cannot truly simulate lakes, however, as they constitute a different type of system (they are not exposed to the atmosphere in the same way, they exchange heat through their sides, and they do not store heat in the same way as lakes).
Some examples of evaporation estimates include annual totals of between 60 and 90 cm (2 and 3 feet) for Lake Ontario (using different techniques and for different years); about 75 cm (2.5 feet) for Lake Mendota, Wisconsin; over 210 cm (7 feet) for Lake Mead, Arizona and Nevada; about 140 cm (4.5 feet) for Lake Hefner; about 660 mm (26 inches) for the IJsselmeer, in the Netherlands; and about 109 mm (4.25 inches) for Lake Baikal.
Water output from a lake in the form of surface water outflow generally depends upon the lake level and the capacity of the effluent channel. Although lakes often have many surface inflows or at least several incoming streams or rivers, they generally have but one surface effluent.
Water level fluctuations
The net water balance for a particular lake will vary according to the periodic and nonperiodic variations of the inputs and outputs and is reflected in the fluctuations of the lake level. Because the prime influencing factors are meteorological, the periodicity of seasonal events are often seen in water level records.
Lake level rises generally coincide with or closely follow seasons of high precipitation, and falls of level generally coincide with seasons of high evaporation. Complications are introduced by a variety of factors, however. The storage of heavy winter precipitation as snowpack is one example. The release of this water during the spring thaw may also be hampered by the presence of river ice, resulting in late-spring or summer peaks. In large drainage basins the full effects of heavy precipitation may not be immediately realized in the lake water balance because of the time required for basin drainage. Where glacier melt is a major input to a lake, the changes in level respond to seasonal heating as well as seasonal precipitation.
Although artificial controls, in the form of diversions, river dredging, and dams, affect the levels of the Great Lakes, the latter provide good examples of seasonal variations because of the lengthy record of levels available. The rivers draining to these large lakes are relatively stable; that is, the ratio of maximum to minimum flow is about 2 or 3 to 1, compared with 30 to 1 for the Mississippi River and 35 to 1 for the Columbia River. A 67-year average of lake levels by month shows that high water occurs, on the average, in September for Lake Superior and in June for Lake Ontario. Lows occur in March and December–January, respectively. The mean range in seasonal levels, for this period, is about 30 cm (1 foot) for Lake Superior and about 45 cm (1.5 feet) for Lake Ontario. The pattern varies considerably from year to year, however, and periods of exceptional precipitation and drought are shown in the records. These events ultimately affect the downstream lakes, but, because of their relatively small discharge volumes, it takes 3.5 years for 60 percent of the full effect of a supply change to Lake Huron–Michigan to appear in the outflow from Lake Ontario.
The seasonal changes in a lake’s level may be superimposed on longer-term trends, which in some cases dominate. Several of the large lakes of the world have water level records that illustrate long-term periods of relative abundance of water and drought. In Central Africa, Lakes Victoria, Albert, Tanganyika, and Nyasa exhibit substantial long-term features, some of which are consistent, suggesting that a common climatological factor is responsible. Nevertheless, others of these features are not consistent within the lakes and have not been adequately explained.
The principal climatological factors that would most affect long-term lake level variations have not been recorded for long periods at many locations. Regular precipitation observations were not made before about 1850. Some useful evidence is found in such natural records as tree rings and peat bog stratigraphy.
On a worldwide basis, there is evidence of a period of low levels in the middle 19th century and near the end of the first quarter of the 20th century. Lake George in Australia, the Caspian Sea, several lakes in western North America, and Pangong Lake in Tibet are examples that have exhibited these features.