Economy and ecology

Concern with thermal pollution of surface waters is concentrated principally on rivers and small lakes. With power requirements in modern societies increasing by about 7 percent per year, however, some apprehension has been expressed about the future thermal loading of even the largest lakes. It was predicted that thermal inputs to each of the North American Great Lakes would increase by nearly 11 times during the last three decades of the 20th century. In terms of energy to be disposed in this fashion, the numbers are staggeringly large. These lakes have such large volumes, however, and such large surface areas (from which much of the heat goes into the atmosphere) that there is some question about the nature and magnitude of the actual effects.

The economic importance of waterways as communication links is enormous. In the earliest times, when travel by many societies was substantially by water, travel routes became established that resulted in relationships between cultural factors and surface hydrology networks. Today river and lake systems serve as communication links and play an important role in shipping because of the large cargo capacities of merchant vessels and the still fairly uncongested condition of inland waterways. Oceanic shipping lanes play the major role, but river and lake systems, which link inland ports with the oceans, have been key factors in the rates of economic growth of many large inland ports.

Commercial fisheries and other food industries reap great harvests from the major lakes of the world. The quality of the fish catch has steadily decreased, however, as a result of pollution in many lakes, with the more desirable species becoming less plentiful and the less desirable species gradually dominating the total. Other commercial harvests from lakes include waterfowl, fur-bearing mammals, and some plant material, such as rice.

Each of the uses described has associated with it the means for abuse of the very characteristics of lakes that make them desirable. Wise management of natural resources has never been humankind’s forte. Municipalities and industries have polluted lakes chemically and thermally, the shipping that plies large inland water bodies leaves oil and other refuse in its wake, water used for irrigation often contains chemical residues from fertilizers and biocides when it is returned to lakes, and the populace that so desperately demands clean bodies of water for its recreation often ignores basic sanitary and antipollution practices, to the ultimate detriment of the waters enjoyed.

Problems and effects

Among the major problems affecting the optimum utilization and conservation of lake waters are eutrophication (aging processes), chemical and biological poisoning, and decreases in water volumes. In the former case, discussed in more detail later, the enrichment of lakes with various nutrients supports biological productivity to an extent in which the ultimate death and decay of biological material places an excessive demand on the oxygen content, resulting in oxygen depletion in the worst cases. Phosphates and nitrates are two of the types of nutrients that are most important in this connection, particularly since they are often introduced in critical quantities in waste effluents from human sources. Other examples of chemical pollution of lakes include the introduction of DDT and other pesticides and heavy metals such as mercury. Bacteriological contamination of lake waters resulting in levels that constitute a hazard to health is another common result of disregard for the environment.

Water-quantity problems are complex, being related to natural vagaries of supply and levels of consumptive utilization of water. In the latter case, the percentage of water returned to the source after utilization varies with the use. The largest losses are due to actual water diversions and processes that result in evaporative losses. The use of large quantities of lake water for cooling purposes by industry and utilities, for example, may raise lake temperatures near the effluents sufficiently to cause increased evaporation. The use of certain types of cooling towers results in even larger losses. Some of the water evaporated will stay within the lake basin, but some will be lost from it.

Another example of this type of loss is connected with the possible application of weather-modification techniques to alleviate the heavy lake-effect snowfalls experienced along the lee shores of large lakes in intermediate latitudes. Redistribution of precipitation always raises the possibility of redistribution of water among various basins.

Lake-effect snowfall is just one example of the influence of lakes on local climate. The ability of large bodies of water to store heat during heating periods and to lose it more gradually than the adjacent landmasses during cooling periods results in a modifying influence on the climate. Because of this propensity, a lake cools air passing over it in summer and warms air passing over it in winter. Consequently, the predominantly downwind side of a lake is more influenced by the ameliorating effects of a lake.

In most instances, moisture is also passed to the atmosphere. In summer, lake cooling serves to stabilize the air mass, but winter heating tends to decrease stability. The moisture-laden, unstable winter flows off lakes produce so-called snowbelts, which affect downwind cities. The snowbelts are usually of limited extent, often within about a kilometre of the lakeshore.