A great variety of map projections has been devised to provide for the various properties that may be desired in maps. In effect, a projection is a systematic method of drawing the Earth’s meridians and parallels on a flat surface. Some projections have equal-area properties, while others provide for conformal delineations in which, for small areas, the shape is practically the same as it would be on a globe. Only on a globe can areas and shapes be represented with true fidelity. On flat maps of very large areas, distortions are inevitable. These effects may be minimized by selecting the projection best suited to the purpose of the map to be produced.

Most types of projection can be grouped according to their geometric derivations as cylindrical, conic, or azimuthal. A few cannot be so related or are combinations of these. Terms such as network, graticule, or grid might have been preferable to describe the transposition of meridians and parallels from globe to flat surface, since few systems are actually derived by projection, and most in fact have been formulated by analytic and mathematical processes. The term projection, however, is well established and has some merit in helping the layman to understand the problems and solutions. The theory of trigonometric surveying was disclosed in 1533 by Gemma Frisius, a Flemish mathematician. In 1569 Gerardus Mercator solved the projection problem by producing his famous world map with the meridians vertical and parallels having increased spacing in proportion to the secant (a trigonometric function) of the latitude. Edward Wright published mathematical tables (1599) giving the basis of Mercator’s projection. Tables for the construction of other commonly used projections have been developed by mapping agencies.

Cylindrical projections treat the Earth as a cylinder on which parallels are horizontal lines and meridians appear as vertical lines. The familiar Mercator projection is of this class and has many advantages in spite of the great distortions that it causes in the higher latitudes. Compass bearings may be plotted as straight segments on these projections, which have been traditionally used for nautical charts. On cylindrical projections places of similar latitude appear at the same height. Parallels and meridians may, if desired, be omitted from the body of the map and instead simply indexed at the margins, while lettering can be placed horizontally rather than in a curve. Among the variations of cylindrical projections is the Transverse Mercator, in which the cylinder is tangent to the Earth not along the Equator but along a chosen meridian, a treatment that has advantages in drawing maps that are long in the north–south direction.

Virtually all navigational charts are constructed on the ordinary Mercator projection; the only navigational charts not on ordinary Mercator projections are great-circle charts and charts of the polar regions. Great-circle charts, which are maps of large areas, such as the entire Pacific Ocean, are ordinarily on very small scales with gnomonic projection. The navigator uses them to lay out a track between ports perhaps thousands of miles apart and then transfers the latitudes corresponding, for example, to each 5° of longitude, to his ocean sailing chart. He thus arrives at a series of short rhumb-line courses, each of which makes the same angle with all meridians, that closely approximate the shortest distance between the two ports.

Conic projections are derived from a projection of the globe on a cone drawn with the point above either the North or South Pole and tangent to the Earth at some standard or selected parallel. Occasionally the cone is arranged to intersect the Earth at two closely spaced standard parallels. A polyconic projection, used in large-scale map series, treats each band of maps as part of a cone tangent to the globe at the particular latitude.

Azimuthal, or zenithal, projections picture a portion of the Earth as a flattened disk, tangent to the Earth at a specified point, as viewed from a point at the centre of the Earth, on the opposite side of the Earth’s surface, or from a point far out in space. If the perspective is from the centre of the Earth, the projection is called gnomonic; if from the far side of the Earth’s surface, it is stereographic; if from space, it is called orthographic.

A type of projection often used to show distances and directions from a particular city is the Azimuthal Equidistant. Such measurements are accurate or true only from the selected central point to any other point of interest.

The polar projection is an azimuthal projection drawn to show Arctic and Antarctic areas. It is based on a plane perpendicular to the Earth’s axis in contact with the North or South Pole. It is limited to 10 or 15 degrees from the poles. Parallels of latitude are concentric circles, while meridians are radiating straight lines.

Development of reference spheroids

Tables from which map projections of the more familiar kinds may be plotted have been available for some years and have been based on the best determinations of the size and shape of the Earth available at the time of their compilation. The dimensions of Clarke’s Spheroid (introduced by the British geodesist Alexander Ross Clarke) of 1866 have been much used in polyconic and other tables. A later determination by Clarke in 1880 reflected the several geodetic surveys that had been conducted during the interim. An International Ellipsoid of Reference was adopted by the Geodetic and Geophysical Union in 1924 for application throughout the world.

The development of electronic distance-measuring systems has facilitated geodetic surveys. During the late 20th century, satellite observation and international collaborations have led to an accurate determination of the size and shape of the Earth and to the possibility of adjusting all existing primary geodetic surveys and astronomical observations to a single world datum.

Geographic and plane coordinate systems

The standard geographic coordinate system of the world involves latitudes north or south of the Equator and longitudes east or west of the Prime Reference Meridian of Greenwich. Map and control point references are stated in degrees, minutes, and seconds carried to the number of decimal places commensurate with the accuracy to which locations have been established.

Geodetic surveys, being of extensive areas, must be adjusted for the Earth’s curvature, and reductions must be made to mean sea level for scale. The computations are therefore somewhat involved. As a convenience for engineers and surveyors, many countries have established official plane coordinate systems for each province, state, or sector thereof. By this means, all surveys can be “tied” to control points in the system without transposition to geographic coordinates.

In large countries such as the United States, two basic projections are commonly selected to provide systems with minimum distortions for each state or region. For those long in north–south dimension, the Transverse Mercator is generally used, while for those long in east–west direction, the Lambert conformal (intersecting cone) projection is usually employed. In the case of large regions, two or more zones may be established to limit distortions. Positions of geodetic control points have been computed on the plane coordinate systems and have been made available in published lists.

Basic data for compilation

Maps may be compiled from other maps, usually of larger scale, or may be produced from original surveys and photogrammetric compilations. The former are sometimes referred to as derived maps and may include information from various sources, in addition to the maps from which they are principally drawn. Most small-scale series, such as the International Map of the World and World Aeronautical Charts, are compiled from existing information, though new data are occasionally produced to strengthen areas for which little or doubtful information exists. Thus compiled maps may contain fragments of original information while those representing original surveys may include some existing data of higher order, such as details from a city plat.

Road maps, produced by the millions, are compiled from road surveys, topographic maps, and aerial photography. City maps often represent original surveys, made principally to control engineering plans and construction. Some are, however, compiled from enlargements of topographic maps of the area.

Notations regarding the sources from which they were drawn are usually carried on compiled maps. This sometimes includes a reliability diagram showing the areas for which good information was available and those that may be less dependable. Comments regarding certain features or areas, which the editor may deem helpful to the user, may be made in the map itself.

Maps reflecting original surveys, such as a national topographic map series, carry standard marginal information. Date of aerial photography, process and instrumentation employed, notes regarding control and projection, date of field edit, and other information may be included. References to the availability of adjoining maps and those of other scales or series may also be included. Marginal ticks for intervals of plane coordinate systems, military grids, and other reference features are also shown and appropriately labeled.

Symbolization

Symbols are the graphic language of maps and charts that has evolved through generations of cartographers. The symbols doubtless had their origins as simple pictograms that gradually developed into the conventions now generally used.

Early cartographers recognized that common usages and conventions would minimize confusion and to some extent simplify compilation and engraving. Efforts in this direction were made over the years, but cartographers, being artists of a sort, preferred to vary their styles, and effective standardization was not achieved until comparatively recent times. National agencies in most countries established conventions with due regard to practices in other countries. International Map of the World agreements, NATO conventions, and the efforts of the United Nations and of international technical societies aid standardization.

Symbols may be broadly classed as planimetric or hypsographic or may be grouped according to the colours in which they are conventionally printed. Black is used for names and culture, or works of man; blue for water features, or hydrography; brown for relief, or hypsography; green for vegetation classifications; and red for road classes and special information. There are variations, however, particularly in special-purpose series, such as soil and geologic maps. Symbols will also vary, perforce, because of limitations of space in the smaller scales and the feasibility of drawing some features to true scale on large maps. Legends explain the less obvious symbols on many maps, while explanatory sheets or booklets are available for most standard series, providing general data as well as symbol information. When less familiar symbols are used on maps they are often labeled to prevent misunderstanding. The general located-object symbol, with label, is often used in preference to specific symbols for such objects as windmills and lookout towers for similar reasons.

Planimetric features (those shown in “plan,” such as streams, shorelines, and roads) are easier to portray than shapes of land and heights above sea level. Mountains were shown on early maps by sketchy lines simulating profile or perspective appearance as envisioned by the cartographer. Little effort was made at true depiction as this was beyond the scope of available information and existing capabilities. Form lines and hachures, among other devices, were also used in attempting to show the land’s shape. Hachures are short lines laid down in a pattern to indicate direction of slope. When it became feasible to map rough terrain in more detail, hachuring developed into an artistic speciality. Some hachured maps are remarkable for their detail and fidelity, but much of their quality depends on the skill of draftsman or engraver. They are little used now, except where relief is incidental.

Contours are by far the most common and satisfactory means of showing relief. Contours are lines that connect points of equal elevation. The shorelines of lakes and of the sea are contours. Such lines were little used until the mid-19th century, mainly because surveys had not generally been made in sufficient detail for them to be employed successfully. Mean sea level is the datum to which elevations and contour intervals are generally referred. If mean sea level were to rise 20 feet (six metres) the new shoreline would be where the 20-foot contour line is now shown (assuming that all maps on which it is delineated are reasonably accurate).

The quality of contour maps, until recent times, depended largely on the sketching skill of the topographer. In earlier days funds available for topographic mapping were limited, and not much time could be spent in accurate placement. Later, the accurate location of more control points became feasible. An approximate scale of reliability is therefore indicated by the date of a topographic survey, taking into account the respective situations that existed in various countries. Modern surveys, being based on aerial photos and accurate plotting instruments, are generally better in detail and accuracy than earlier surveys. The personal skill of individual topographers, long a factor in map evaluations, has therefore been substantially eliminated.

Hill shading, or shaded relief, layer or altitude tinting, and special manipulations of contouring are other methods of indicating relief. Hill shading requires considerable artistry, as well as the ability to visualize shapes and interpret contours. For a satisfactory result, background contours are a necessary guide to the artist. Hypsographic tinting is relatively easy, particularly since photomechanical etching and other steps can be used to provide negatives for the respective elevation layers. Difficulty in the reproduction process is sometimes a deterrent to the use of treatments involving the manipulation of contours.

In the past, three-dimensional maps were laboriously constructed for studies in military tactics and for many other purposes. They were costly to produce, as contour layers had to be cut and assembled, filled with plaster and painted, after which streams, roads, etc., had to be drawn on the surface. Lettering then was applied, and models of large structures, such as buildings and bridges, were added. In view of the time and cost involved in such productions, they were sparingly used until recent years when better production methods and materials became available. During and after World War I a process was developed and improved whereby an aluminum sheet was “raised” by tapping along the contours copied on its surface. When the contours selected for tapping were completed, the sheet became, in effect, a mold for shaping plastic sheets to its convolutions. The map was printed on plastic sheets prior to the thermal process of shaping them to the mold. Sets of relief maps were soon produced in this manner for use in schools, military briefings, and many other activities.

During and after World War II the production of plastic relief maps was greatly expanded, while the processes and equipment were further improved and refined. Most significant among these developments was a pantograph-router, which cuts a model from plaster or other suitable material as the selected contours are followed by the operator on a topographic map. This eliminated the distortions inherent in shaping metal sheets by the tapping process. Selected topographic maps are now published in limited relief editions for military instruction, special displays, and general classroom instruction.

Most relief maps are exaggerated severalfold in the vertical scale. The Earth is remarkably smooth, when viewed in actual scale, and many significant features would hardly be distinguishable on a map without some vertical exaggeration. Mt. Everest, for example, is actually only one-seventh of 1 percent of the Earth’s radius in height, or only one-third of an inch (about eight millimetres) at a scale of 1:1,000,000. For this reason relief is usually shown at five, or even 10, times actual scale, depending upon the nature of the area represented. This exaggerated relief scale is always explained in the map legend.

Nomenclature

All possible places and features are identified and labeled to maximize the usefulness of the map. Some names must be omitted, particularly from maps of smaller scales, to avoid overcrowding and poor legibility. The editor must decide which names may be eliminated, while arranging placements so that a maximum number may be accommodated.

Geographic names are the most important, and sometimes the most troublesome, part of the map nomenclature as a whole. Research on existing maps and related documents for a given area may reveal different names for the same features, variations in spelling, or ambiguous applications of names. The field engineer often finds that local usage is confused and sometimes controversial. Various types of official organizations have been established to study the problems submitted and decide the forms and applications that are to be used in government maps and documents. This function is exercised in the United States by the Board on Geographic Names and in the United Kingdom by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names; worldwide these activities are coordinated by the United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names.

The science of place-names, or toponymics, has become a significant specialty since World War II, and efforts have been made to establish uniform usages and standards of transliteration throughout the world. Renewed interest in completing the remaining sheets of the International Map of the World, collaborations resulting from military alliances, and efforts of committees of international scientific societies and the United Nations have contributed to these efforts.

At the local levels, however, there are different kinds of problems. The larger scales of most basic topographic map series permit the naming of quite minor hilltops, ridges, streams, and branches, for which designations can be obtained locally. In sparsely settled country few names in actual use may be obtained for minor features, while in other areas inquiries may reveal inconsistencies and confusions in both spelling and application of local names. In some areas, for example, local residents may tend to refer to small streams by the name of the present occupant of the headwater area. The occupants of opposite sides of a mountain sometimes refer to it by different names. In coastal areas the waterman and landsman may use different references for the same features.

A prime opportunity for resolving these problems is presented when a topographic map of an area is prepared for publication. By extensive inquiry and documentation and research of local records and deeds, the appropriate form and application of nearly all names can be determined. Publication and distribution of the map as an official document may then tend to solidify local usage and eliminate the confusions that previously existed.

Lettering is selected by the map editor in styles and sizes appropriate to the respective features and the relative importance of each. For topographic maps and most others that follow conventional practice, four basic styles of lettering are used in the Western world. The Roman style is generally used for place-names, political divisions, titles, and related nomenclature. Italic is used for lakes, streams, and other water features. Gothic styles are usually applied to land features such as mountains, ridges, and valleys. Man-made works such as highways, railroads, and canals are usually labeled in slope Gothic capitals, but other distinctive styles are often used for these, together with descriptive notes.

The relative importance of map features is reflected in the different sizes of lettering selected to label them. The most prominent places and features are usually shown in capitals, while lesser ones are labeled with lowercase lettering. In the labeling of cities, however, uppercase lettering is often reserved for state or province capitals. County seats are also labeled in this manner on topographic maps of the United States. For other towns, where lowercase lettering is in order, the sizes selected reflect their relative importance. The use of hand lettering has been abandoned in favour of words and figures printed by type or by a photographic process onto transparent material that is “floated” onto the compilation and anchored by an adhesive wax backing in the proper place. Compass roses and graphic scales are added in the same manner.

World status of mapping and basic data

Before World War I only a few countries, such as Great Britain, France, and Germany, had detailed maps covering their whole national areas. Now many countries have completed coverage of their territories, while others have carried out small-scale coverage and are beginning engineering surveys in selected areas.

It has been demonstrated that the full potential of map usage in a country, state, or province is not realized until some time after complete coverage has become available. When a modern, detailed map replaces an earlier issue, annual distribution can increase dramatically.

Topographic maps provide the basic data for many other kinds as well as working bases for thematic maps showing geology, soils, and vegetation types. The progress of such mapping in the various parts of the world is therefore a primary indicator of the status of cartography in general. A United Nations survey of the status of world mapping is taken periodically. Inquiries are made to the mapping organizations of all member countries regarding the extent of their respective map coverage, publication scales, and related data.

About a third of the world’s land area is now covered by maps at scales of 1:75,000 and larger. Some of such coverage is culturally obsolescent or of low structural quality. An additional third is covered by medium-scale topographic maps; i.e., up to 1:125,000 (about two miles to the inch). Some of this is inferior coverage at medium scales, lacking in geodetic control and topographic detail. This is the case with much of China, but most of the mapping is quite adequate for purposes of reconnaissance and as source information for smaller scale maps.

This provides a general indication of the relative reliability of data contained in such world series maps as the 1:1,000,000-scale aeronautical charts and International Maps of the World. Areas of doubtful information are left blank or are drawn with broken lines. In spite of this dearth of reliable data, most of the IMW sheets have been compiled, and most of the aeronautical pilotage charts have been published, to provide navigation continuity across water areas as well as over unmapped parts of the world.

In some areas, however, large-scale topographic maps are not required. Australia, for example, has large-scale coverage only of its populated coastal areas in the east; in the Outback areas 1:250,000-scale maps are considered adequate for most needs, and a program for their production is well under way. Likewise, large areas of tundra, as in Siberia, deserts in many parts of the world, and other sparsely populated areas may be adequately served with medium- or small-scale coverage until specific development sites require engineering maps.

Nautical chart coverage of the world leaves much to be desired. Good progress has been made, however, on areas bordering the continents and islands. The Arctic, Antarctic, South Pacific, and South Atlantic oceans are the most deficient in good coverage. The Defense Mapping Agency, through agreement with the British Admiralty and other chart-producing countries, maintains worldwide coverage that is constantly updated. The National Ocean Service (originally Survey) maintains charts of U.S. coastal waters. The International Hydrographic Organization (until 1967 Bureau), based at Monaco, attempts to stimulate cooperation in improvement of hydrographic data in general. This organization’s General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans shows existing knowledge and is revised from time to time as new data are accumulated.

Coverage of reliable aeronautical charts parallels the availability of topographic maps that provide the essential terrain and cultural data. For this purpose, good 1:250,000scale maps contain sufficient information for clearance safety and position identification.

Until recently the progress of geodetic triangulation, the basic survey method, was more or less limited to areas either covered by good topographic maps or scheduled for mapping. Preparations for cadastral surveys, where land partition problems abound, have occasionally led to early geodetic programs. Coastal and other surveys also require good basic control to be fully effective; however, it is again the developed and heavily populated areas that are encompassed with the best geodetic surveys. Electronic distance-measuring systems accelerated the progress of geodetic surveys during the 1960s and extended continental schemes over many ocean areas. International cooperation on satellite triangulation is now in progress, with the prospect that existing triangulation of the continents may soon be tied together and adjusted into a single world datum. The Inter-American Geodetic Survey has made progress in the Americas.

In addition to other applications, aerial photographs provide a useful supplement to topographic maps. Indeed, where maps are not available, aerial photographs invariably serve as map substitutes in spite of inherent distortions and lack of elevation data. Most of the world is covered by aerial photography.

During World War II the U.S. Air Force photographed vast areas of the world, providing reconnaissance maps that were used as bases for aeronautical charts. Much of this information now forms the basis for small-scale map coverage in still remote areas. The system of photography and mapping became known as the trimetrogon process. In it, three wide-angle cameras are used to photograph the terrain from horizon to horizon across the line of flight from an elevation of 20,000 feet (6,100 metres). Detail is usually discernible and plottable for several miles on each side of the line of flight, and occasional points, required for photo-triangulation, can be identified farther out. With higher flight capabilities, wider-angle cameras, and lenses of fine resolution, the progress of aerial photography has been accelerated. Films have been much improved for fineness of emulsion grain and scale stability. Satellite photography and high-altitude flights with super-wide-angle cameras are now under way in the remaining areas of the world. Infrared and colour film developments have greatly improved photo-interpretation capabilities, providing much better delineations for coastal charts, geologic maps, timber and soil classifications, and other thematic mapping.