Mapmaking
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Elements
Map design is a twofold process: (1) the determination of user requirements, with attendant decisions as to map content and detail, and (2) the arrangement of content, involving publication scale, standards of treatment, symbolizations, colours, style, and other factors. To some extent user requirements obviously affect standards of treatment, such as publication scale. Otherwise, the latter elements are largely determined on the basis of efficiency, legibility, aesthetic considerations, and traditional practices.
In earlier productions by individual cartographers or small groups, personal judgments determined the nature of the end product, usually with due respect for conventional standards. Map design for large programs, such as the various national map series of today, is quite formal by comparison. In most countries, the requirements of official as well as private users are carefully studied, in conjunction with costs and related factors, when considering possible changes or additions to the current standards.
Requirements of military agencies often have a decisive influence on map design, since it is desirable to avoid the expense of maintaining both civil and military editions of maps. International organizations and committees are additional factors in determining map design. The fact that development of changes in design and content of national map series may become rather involved induces some reluctance to change, as does the fact that map stocks are usually printed in quantities intended to last for 10 or more years. Also, frequent changes in treatments result in extensive overhauls at reprint time, with consequent inconsistencies among the standing editions.
Planning for the production of a national series involves both technical and program considerations. Technical planning involves the choice of a contour interval (the elevation separating adjacent contour lines, or lines of constant elevation), which in turn determines the height of aerial photography and other technical specifications for each project. The sequence of mapping steps, or operational phases, is determined by the overall technical procedures that have been established to achieve the most efficiency.
The program aspects of planning involve fiscal allotments, priorities, schedules, and related matters.
Production controls also play important roles in large programs, where schedules must be balanced with capacities available in the respective phases to avoid backlogs or dormant periods between the mapping steps. Considering that topographic maps may require two years or more to complete, from authorization to final printing, the importance of careful planning is evident. Many factors, including the weather, can converge to cause delays.
Map scales and classifications
Map scale refers to the size of the representation on the map as compared to the size of the object on the ground. The scale generally used in architectural drawings, for example, is 1/4 inch to one foot, which means that 1/4 of an inch on the drawing equals one foot on the building being drawn. The scales of models of buildings, railroads, and other objects may be one inch to several feet. Maps cover more extensive areas, and it is usually convenient to express the scale by a representative fraction or proportion, as 1/63,360, 1:63,360, or “one-inch-to-one-mile.” The scale of a map is smaller than that of another map when its scale denominator is larger: thus, 1:1,000,000 is a smaller scale than 1:100,000. Most maps carry linear, or bar, scales in one or more margins or in the title blocks.
Nautical charts are constructed on widely different scales and can be generally classified as follows: ocean sailing charts are small-scale charts, 1:5,000,000 or smaller, used for planning long voyages or marking the daily progress of a ship. Sailing charts, used for offshore navigation, show a generalized shoreline, only offshore soundings, and are at a scale between 1:600,000 and 1:5,000,000. As an illustration of chart use, a 10-knot ship covers about 29 inches (74 centimetres) at 1:600,000 scale in a day.
General charts are used for coastwise navigation outside outlying reefs and shoals and are at a scale between 1:100,000 and 1:600,000. Coast charts are intended for use in leaving and entering port or navigating inside outlying reefs or shoals and are at a scale between 1:50,000 and 1:100,000. Harbour charts are for use in harbours and small waterways, with a scale usually larger than 1:50,000.
In rare instances reference may be made to the areal scale of a map, as opposed to the more common linear scale. In such cases the denominator of the fractional reference would be the square of the denominator of the linear scale.
The linear scale may vary within a single map, particularly if the scale is small. Variations in the scale of a map because of the sphericity of the surface it represents may, for practical purposes, be considered as nil. On maps of very large scale, such as 1:24,000, such distortions are negligible (considerably less than variations in the paper from fluctuations of humidity). Precise measurements for engineering purposes are usually restricted to maps of that scale or larger. As maps descend in scale, and distortions inherent to their projection of the spherical surface increase, less accurate measurements of distances may be expected.
Maps may be classified according to scale, content, or derivation. The latter refers to whether a map represents an original survey or has been derived from other maps or source data. Some contain both original and derived elements, usually explained in their footnotes. Producing agencies, technical committees, and international organizations have variously classed maps as large, medium, or small scale. In general, large scale means inch-to-mile and larger, small scale, 1:1,000,000 and smaller, leaving the intermediate field as medium scale. As with most relative terms, these can occasionally lead to confusions but are useful as one practical way to classify maps.
The nature of a map’s content, as well as its purpose, provides a primary basis of classification. The terms aeronautical chart, geologic, soil, forest, road, and weather map make obvious their respective contents and purposes. Maps are therefore often classified by the primary purposes they serve. Topographic maps usually form the background for geologic, soil, and similar thematic maps and provide primary elements of the bases upon which many other kinds of maps are compiled.
