Devices based on the photoelectric effect have several desirable properties, including producing a current that is directly proportional to light intensity and a very fast response time. One basic device is the photoelectric cell, or photodiode. Originally, this was a phototube, a vacuum tube containing a cathode made of a metal with a small work function so that electrons would be easily emitted. The current released by the plate would be gathered by an anode held at a large positive voltage relative to the cathode. Phototubes have been replaced by semiconductor-based photodiodes that can detect light, measure its intensity, control other devices as a function of illumination, and turn light into electrical energy. These devices work at low voltages, comparable to their bandgaps, and they are used in industrial process control, pollution monitoring, light detection within fibre optics telecommunications networks, solar cells, imaging, and many other applications.
Photoconductive cells are made of semiconductors with bandgaps that correspond to the photon energies to be sensed. For example, photographic exposure meters and automatic switches for street lighting operate in the visible spectrum, so they are typically made of cadmium sulfide. Infrared detectors, such as sensors for night-vision applications, may be made of lead sulfide or mercury cadmium telluride.
Photovoltaic devices typically incorporate a semiconductor p-n junction. For solar cell use, they are usually made of crystalline silicon and convert about 15 percent of the incident light energy into electricity. Solar cells are often used to provide relatively small amounts of power in special environments such as space satellites and remote telephone installations. Development of cheaper materials and higher efficiencies may make solar power economically feasible for large-scale applications.
The photomultiplier tube is a highly sensitive extension of the phototube, first developed in the 1930s, which contains a series of metal plates called dynodes. Light striking the cathode releases electrons. These are attracted to the first dynode, where they release additional electrons that strike the second dynode, and so on. After up to 10 dynode stages, the photocurrent is so enormously amplified that some photomultipliers can virtually detect a single photon. These devices, or solid-state versions of comparable sensitivity, are invaluable in spectroscopy research, where it is often necessary to measure extremely weak light sources. They are also used in scintillation counters, which contain a material that produces flashes of light when struck by X-rays or gamma rays, coupled to a photomultiplier that counts the flashes and measures their intensity. These counters support applications such as identifying particular isotopes for nuclear tracer analysis and detecting X-rays used in computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans to portray a cross section through the body.
Photodiodes and photomultipliers also contribute to imaging technology. Light amplifiers or image intensifiers, television camera tubes, and image-storage tubes use the fact that the electron emission from each point on a cathode is determined by the number of photons arriving at that point. An optical image falling on one side of a semitransparent cathode is converted into an equivalent “electron current” image on the other side. Then electric and magnetic fields are used to focus the electrons onto a phosphor screen. Each electron striking the phosphor produces a flash of light, causing the release of many more electrons from the corresponding point on a cathode directly opposite the phosphor. The resulting intensified image can be further enhanced by the same process to produce even greater amplification and can be displayed or stored.
At higher photon energies the analysis of electrons emitted by X-rays gives information about electronic transitions among energy states in atoms and molecules. It also contributes to the study of certain nuclear processes, and it plays a role in the chemical analysis of materials, since emitted electrons carry a specific energy that is characteristic of the atomic source. The Compton effect is also used to analyze the properties of materials, and in astronomy it is used to analyze gamma rays that come from cosmic sources.