Integumentary system

The skin has a double origin. Its superficial layer, or epidermis, develops from ectoderm. The initial single-layered sheet of epithelial cells becomes multilayered by proliferation, and cells nearer the surface differentiate into a horny substance. Pigment granules appear in the basal layer. The epidermis of the palm and sole becomes thicker and more specialized than elsewhere. Cast-off superficial cells and downy hairs mingle with a greasy glandular secretion and smear the skin in the late fetal months; the pasty mass is called vernix caseosa. The deep layer of the skin, or dermis, is a fibrous anchoring bed differentiated from mesoderm. In the later fetal months the plane of union between epidermis and dermis becomes wavy. The permanently ridged patterns are notable at the surface of the palm and sole.

Nails develop in pocketlike folds of the skin near the tips of digits. During the fifth month specialized horny material differentiates into proliferating ectodermal cells. The resulting nail plate is pushed forward as new plate substance is added in the fold. Fingernails reach the fingertips one month before birth. Hairs, produced only by mammals, begin forming in the third month as cylindrical buds that grow downward from the epidermis into the dermis. Cells at the base of the hair bud proliferate and produce a horny, pigmented thread that moves progressively upward in the axis of the original cylinder. This first crop of hairs is a downy coat named lanugo. It is prominent by the fifth month but is mostly cast off before birth. Unlike nails, hairs are shed and replaced periodically throughout life.

Sebaceous glands develop into tiny bags, each growing out from the epithelial sheath that surrounds a hair. Their cells proliferate, disintegrate, and release an oily secretion. Sweat glands at first resemble hair pegs, but the deep end of each soon coils. In the seventh month an axial cavity appears and later is continued through the epidermis. The mammary glands, unique to mammals, are specialized sweat glands. In the sixth week a thickened band of ectoderm extends between the bases of the upper and lower limb buds. In the pectoral (chest) region only, gland buds grow rootlike into the primitive connective tissue beneath. During the fifth month 15 to 20 solid cords foretell the future ducts of each gland. Until late childhood the mammary glands are identical in both sexes.

Mouth and anus

The mouth is a derivative of the stomodaeum, an external pit bounded by the overjutting primitive nasal region and the early upper and lower jaw projections. Its floor is a thin membrane where ectoderm and endoderm fuse (oropharyngeal membrane). Midway in the fourth week this membrane ruptures, making continuous the primitive ectodermal mouth and endodermal pharynx (throat). Lips and cheeks arise when ectodermal bands grow into the mesoderm and then split into two sheets. Teeth have a compound origin: the cap of enamel develops from ectoderm, whereas the main mass of the tooth, the dentin, and the encrusting cementum about the root differentiate from mesoderm. The salivary glands arise as ectodermal buds that branch, bushlike, into the deeper mesoderm. Berrylike endings become the secretory acini (small sacs), while the rest of the canalized system serves as ducts. The palate is described in relation to the nasal passages. A tiny pocket detaches from the ectodermal roof of the stomodaeum and becomes the anterior, or frontward, lobe of the hypophysis, also called the pituitary gland. The anterior lobe fuses with the neural lobe of the gland.

A double-layered oval membrane separates the endodermal hindgut from an ectodermal pit, called the proctodaeum, the site of the future anal canal and its orifice, the anus. Rupture at eight weeks creates a communication between the definitive anus and the rectum.

Central nervous system

Both the brain and the spinal cord arise from an elongated thickening of the ectoderm that occupies the midline region of the embryonic disk. The sides of this neural plate elevate as neural folds, which then bound a gutterlike neural groove. Further growth causes the folds to meet and fuse, thereby creating a neural tube. The many-layered wall of this tube differentiates into three concentric zones, first indicated in embryos of five weeks. The innermost zone, bordering the central canal, becomes a layer composed of long cells called ependymal cells, which are supportive in function. The middle zone becomes the gray substance, a layer characterized by nerve cells. The outermost zone becomes the white substance, a layer packed with nerve fibres. The neural tube is also demarcated internally by a pair of longitudinal grooves into dorsal and ventral halves. The dorsal half is a region associated with sensory functioning and the ventral half with motor functioning.

The gray substance contains primitive stem cells, many of which differentiate into neuroblasts. Each neuroblast becomes a neuron, or a mature nerve cell, with numerous short branching processes, the dendrites, and with a single long process, the axon. The white substance lacks neuroblasts but contains closely packed axons, many with fatty sheaths that produce the whitish appearance. The primitive stem cells of the neural tube also give rise to nonnervous cells called neuroglia cells.