Although it is presumed that all amphibians possess hearing of some kind, the evidence is sparse; only salamanders other than anurans have been studied experimentally. Salamanders trained to come for food at the sound of a tone responded only at low frequencies, up to 244 hertz in one specimen and to 218 hertz in three others.

Frogs, which are of special interest because they first live in the water as tadpoles and then undergo a metamorphosis that equips them for life on land, have been studied more extensively. Considerable modifications of the middle-ear mechanism occur during metamorphosis. Presumably, the tadpole larva has an aquatic ear that is later transformed into an aerial type.

Interest in the hearing of adult frogs has been stimulated by their active and often loud croaking during the breeding season. Evidently, their vocalizations assist in the location and selection of mates. The first experimental study of auditory sensitivity in frogs, carried out in 1905, showed that leg movements in response to strong tactual stimuli may be enhanced or even inhibited by sounds.

Somewhat later, following some unsuccessful attempts to train frogs to make behavioral responses to acoustic stimuli, two other methods were employed to determine the sensitivity and range of their hearing. One of these was the recording of changes in the electrical potentials of the inner ear and auditory nerve; the other was the observation of changes in the potentials of the skin (electrodermal responses) to acoustic stimuli. As a result of these investigations, inner-ear potentials and electrodermal responses in the bullfrog have been recorded over a range from 100 to 3,500 hertz. In the treefrog, these same responses have been found in a range that extended from 50 to 3,000 hertz, with the greatest sensitivity from 600 to 800 hertz, and again at 2,000 hertz.

The recording of impulses from single fibres in the auditory nerve of bullfrogs and the green frog indicates that two types of auditory nerve fibres are present. This has led to the suggestion that they represent the different characteristics of the amphibian and basilar papillae. It is believed that the amphibian papilla is more sensitive to low tones and that the basilar papilla is more sensitive to high tones.

Auditory structure

There are about 20 families of lizards, ranging from the chameleon, a divergent type, to the gecko, certain species of which have the most highly developed ears found in the group. The chameleons, of those species studied thus far, have only a few sensory hair cells (40 to 50) in the auditory papilla. The geckos, on the other hand, have several hundred hair cells, and the Gekko gecko has about 1,600, the largest known number of hair cells in any saurian. Other lizard species fall between these two extremes in inner-ear development, with the iguanids, the most common lizards in the Western Hemisphere, having from 60 to 200 hair cells, according to the species.

What may be regarded as the standard type of middle-ear structure in the lizards consists of a tympanic membrane and a two-element ossicular chain that extends from the inner surface of this membrane to the oval window of the otic capsule. The ossicular chain is made up of two parts: the osseous (bony) columella, whose expanded innermost end (the stapes) fills the oval window, and the extracolumella, a cartilaginous extension that usually spreads out in two to four processes that are embedded in the fibrous layer of the tympanic membrane. Geckos have a single middle-ear muscle attached to the lateral part of the extracolumella; evidently, contractions of this muscle stiffen the extracolumella, thereby dampening the ossicular motions and protecting the ear against excessively intense sounds.

The auditory part (cochlea) of the inner ear consists of a basilar membrane lying in an opening in the limbus, which is a plate of connective tissue. The form of the basilar membrane, which is unlike the structure of the same name in amphibians and is clearly of different origin, varies from a simple oval in iguanids to a long, tapered ribbon in gekkonids. In many species the middle portion of the basilar membrane is greatly thickened, especially in some regions of the cochlea. Over this thickening, which is called the fundus, lies the auditory papilla proper—i.e., that part of the cochlea in which the sensory hair cells are held in a framework of supporting tissues and cells. The hair cells usually occur in regular transverse rows, with the number of cells in a row varying along the cochlea. They have a tuft of cilia, the so-called sensory hairs, of graduated lengths, the longest of which are usually attached either directly or indirectly to a tectorial membrane. This membrane arises from a region of the limbus that is usually elevated, often strikingly so, and runs as a thin web or sheet to the region of the hair cells. Only rarely does the free edge of the tectorial membrane connect directly with the cilia of the hair cells; usually there are intermediate connecting structures that take a variety of forms, from simple fibres to relatively massive plates.

The function of the tectorial membrane and its connections to the ciliary tuft of a hair cell is to immobilize the tuft when the body of the hair cell moves in unison with the basilar membrane on which it rests. This produces a relative motion between the ciliary tuft and the body of the cell and stimulates the cell. All auditory stimulation depends ultimately upon this relative motion, and the means just described for achieving it can be regarded as the most fundamental process by which sounds are perceived. Although it is employed in the great majority of ears, it is not the only mode of stimulation. Another mode is that in the ears of fishes, in which an otolith lies upon the ciliary tufts and, by its inertia, reduces and alters the motion of the tuft relative to the cell body. Still another method is the one in the frog papilla, in which the tectorial membrane is moved by the cochlear fluids while the body of the sensory cell remains at rest.

In some lizards the inertia principle has a form different from that found in fishes. In the former, a body called a sallet lies upon the ciliary tufts of a group of hair cells and, by its inertia (or by an equivalent means), restrains the movement of the cilia when the cell body is made to move. The result is a relative motion and a stimulation of the hair cells, like the more common restraint by a tectorial membrane.

The ears of two lizard families show only the inertial restraint method of stimulation; in several other families this method functions in some regions of the cochlea for certain hair cells. Hair-cell stimulation by two or more different arrangements within the same cochlea, however, is the rule rather than the exception because of its many advantages. Although the tectorial-restraint method provides great sensitivity for individual cells, the sallet system also attains good sensitivity, but in another way: by causing many cells—those in common contact with a given sallet—to work in parallel, thus producing a spatial summation. The sallet system has the advantage of being more resistant to damage by overstimulation from intense sounds. In such lizards as the geckos, for example, in which the hair cells are divided nearly equally between tectorial and sallet systems, an exposure to excessive sound has been observed to break all the tectorial connections to the hair cells while leaving the sallet connections intact. But even though the most sensitive hair cells are inoperative, the animal can respond to sounds, although with lesser acuity.