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When the mass of the remnant core lies between 1.4 and about 2 solar masses, it apparently becomes a neutron star with a density more than a million times greater than even that of a white dwarf. Having so much mass packed within a ball on the order of 20 km (12 miles) in diameter, a neutron star has a density that can reach that of nuclear values, which is roughly 100 trillion (1014) times the average density of solar matter or of water. Such a star is predicted to have a crystalline solid crust, wherein bare atomic nuclei would be held in a lattice of rigidity and strength some 18 orders of magnitude greater than that of steel. Below the crust, the density is similar to that of an atomic nucleus, so the residual atomic cores lose their individuality as their nuclei are jammed together to form a nuclear fluid.
Although neutron stars were predicted in the 1930s, it was not until the late 1960s that observers accidentally discovered a radio source emitting weak pulses, each lasting about 0.3 second with a remarkably constant period of approximately 1.337 seconds. Other examples of such an object, dubbed a pulsar for “pulsating radio star,” were soon found.
A large body of evidence now identifies pulsars as rotating magnetized neutron stars. All the energy emitted in the pulses derives from a slowing of the star’s rotation, but only a small fraction is released in the form of radio-frequency pulses. The rest goes into pulses observed elsewhere in the electromagnetic spectrum and into cosmic rays, with perhaps some going into the emission of gravitational energy, or gravity waves. For example, the pulsar at the centre of the Crab Nebula, the most well-known of modern supernovas, has been observed not only at radio frequencies but also at optical and X-ray frequencies, where it emits 100 and 10,000 times, respectively, as much radiation as in the radio spectrum. The slowing of the pulsar’s spin also supplies the energy needed to account for the nonthermal, or synchrotron, emission from the Crab Nebula, which ranges from X-rays to gamma rays.
Pulsar radiation is polarized, both linearly and circularly, and can be understood in terms of a rotating star having a powerful magnetic field of a trillion gauss. (By contrast, Earth’s magnetic field is about 0.5 gauss.) Various mechanisms have been proposed whereby charged particles can be accelerated to velocities close to that of light itself. Possibly most, if not all, galactic cosmic rays originate from supernovas and remnant pulsars.
Modern observations have recorded sudden changes in the rotation rates of pulsars. The Vela pulsar, for instance, has abruptly increased its spin rate several times. Such a period change or “glitch” can be explained if the pulsar altered its radius by about one centimetre; this sudden shrinkage of the crust is sometimes called a “starquake.” Pulsar phenomena apparently last much longer than the observable supernova remnants in which they were born, since well more than 2,500 pulsars have been cataloged and only a few are associated with well-known remnants. Even so, the statistics of pulsars are likely to be observationally biased, since signals from pulsars at great distances in the Galaxy become distorted by ionized regions of interstellar space.