At the beginning of the 20th century, 40 percent of American automobiles were powered by steam, 38 percent by electricity, and 22 percent by gasoline. In the face of the gasoline car’s unreliability, noise, and vibration and the steamer’s complications and thirst, the electric offered attractive selling points: notably, instant self-start, silent operation, and minimal maintenance. The first automobile to exceed 100 km (60 miles) per hour was an electric (Camille Jenatzy’s La Jamais Contente, 1899). An electric, also Jenatzy’s, had been the easy winner in 1898 of a French hill-climb contest to assay the three forms of power.

Invention of the storage battery by Gaston Planté of France in 1859–60 and its improvement by Camille Faure in 1881 made the electric vehicle possible, and what was probably the first, a tricycle, ran in Paris in 1881. It was followed by other three-wheelers in London (1882) and Boston (1888). The first American battery-powered automobile, built in Des Moines, Iowa, c. 1890, by William Morrison, could maintain a speed of 14 miles (23 km) per hour.

The popularity of the electric car was hampered by a lack of battery-charging infrastructure. Prior to 1910, few private homes, even in cities, were wired with electricity, and community charging stations and battery exchange schemes failed to catch on. By 1912 the problem had been overcome, and the electric had its heyday. Some 20 companies were in the trade and 33,842 electric cars were registered in the United States, the country in which they had maximum acceptance. It was another application of battery power, the electric self-starter, that did as much as anything to doom the electric car by eliminating the dreaded hand crank and making the internal-combustion engine car amenable to operation by women. Further, the electric had never really been suited to other than limited urban use because of its low speed (15–20 miles, or 24–32 km, per hour), short range (30–40 miles, or about 50–65 km), and lengthy time required for recharging. The heyday of the electric car in America had ended by 1920, although a few manufacturers offered them on special order until World War II. The war, however, gave rise to experiments with small electric cars in fuel-starved France and resulted in extensive use of electric vehicles for milk delivery in Britain, which continued in urban areas there for the rest of the century.

Development of the gasoline car

Most authorities are inclined to honour Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler of Germany as the most important pioneer contributors to the gasoline-engine automobile. Benz ran his first car in 1885, Daimler in 1886. Although there is no reason to believe that Benz had ever seen a motor vehicle before he made his own, he and Daimler had been preceded by Étienne Lenoir in France and Siegfried Marcus in Austria, in 1862 and 1864–65, respectively, but neither Lenoir nor Marcus had persisted. Benz and Daimler did persist—indeed, to such purpose that their successor firm of Daimler AG can trace its origins as far back as 1885. Oddly, Benz and Daimler never met.

The four-stroke principle upon which most modern automobile engines work was discovered by a French engineer, Alphonse Beau de Rochas, in 1862, a year before Lenoir ran his car from Paris to Joinville-le-Pont. The four-stroke cycle is often called the Otto cycle, after the German Nikolaus August Otto, who designed an engine on that principle in 1876. De Rochas held prior patents, however, and litigation in the French courts upheld him. Lenoir’s engine omitted the compression stroke of the Otto cycle; fuel was drawn into the cylinder on the intake stroke and fired by a spark halfway on the next reciprocal stroke.

The idea for Marcus’s 1864–65 car apparently came to him by chance while he was considering the production of illumination by igniting a mixture of gasoline and air with a stream of sparks. The reaction was so violent that it occurred to him to use it as a power source. His first vehicle was a handcart marrying a two-cycle engine geared to the rear wheels without any intervening clutch. It was started by having a strong man lift the rear end while the wheels were spun, after which it ran for a distance of about 180 metres (about 200 yards). Marcus’s second model, the 1888–89 car, was sturdy and sufficiently well-preserved to make a demonstration run in the streets of Vienna in 1950, and again in 1987, at a rate of almost 5 km (3 miles) per hour. In 1898 the Austrian Automobile Club arranged an exhibition of motorcars, and Marcus was a guest of honour. Ironically, he denied interest in the idea of the automobile, calling it “a senseless waste of time and effort.”

Germany

Karl Benz

Karl Benz was completely dedicated to the proposition that the internal-combustion engine would supersede the horse and revolutionize the world’s transportation. He persisted in his efforts to build a gasoline-fueled vehicle in the face of many obstacles, including lack of money to the point of poverty and the bitter objections of his associates, who considered him unbalanced on the subject.

Benz ran his first car, a three-wheeler powered by a two-cycle, one-cylinder engine, on a happy and triumphant day early in 1885. He circled a cinder track beside his small factory, his workmen running beside the car, his wife running too, clapping her hands; the little machine made four circuits of the track, stalling only twice before a broken chain stopped it. Even Max Rose, Benz’s skeptical partner, whose money had made the car possible, conceded that he was mildly impressed; but, like Siegfried Marcus, he remained convinced to the end of his association with Benz that there was no future in the horseless carriage.

Benz made his first sale to a Parisian named Émile Roger in 1888. Gradually, the soundness of his design and the quality and care that went into the material and the construction of his cars bore weight, and they sold well. That year he was employing some 50 workmen to build the tricycle car; in 1893 he began to make a four-wheeler.

In his way, Benz was almost as dogmatic and reactionary as Marcus had been; he objected to redesign of his original cars, and some authorities believe that he was never really convinced that his original concepts had been improved upon.

Gottlieb Daimler

Gunsmithing was Gottlieb Daimler’s first vocation, and he showed marked talent, but he abandoned the trade to go to engineering school, studying in Germany, England, and France. In Germany he worked for various engineering and machining concerns, including the Karlsruhe Maschinenbaugesellschaft, a firm that much earlier had employed Benz.

In 1872 Daimler became technical director of Otto’s firm, then building stationary gasoline engines. During the next decade, important work was done on the four-stroke engine. Daimler brought in several brilliant researchers, among them Wilhelm Maybach, but in 1882 both Daimler and Maybach resigned because of Daimler’s conviction that Otto did not understand the potential of the internal-combustion engine. They set up a shop in Bad Cannstatt and built an air-cooled, one-cylinder engine. The first high-speed internal-combustion engine, it was designed to run at 900 revolutions per minute (rpm). For comparison, Benz’s first tricycle engine had operated at only 250 rpm. Daimler and Maybach built a second engine and mounted it on a wooden bicycle fitted with an outrigger, which first ran on November 10, 1885. The next year the first Daimler four-wheeled road vehicle was made: a carriage modified to be driven by a one-cylinder engine. Daimler appears to have believed that the first phase of the automobile era would be a mass conversion of carriages to engine drive; Benz apparently thought of the motorcar as a separate device. Daimler’s licensees in France were René Panhard and Émile Levassor. In 1889 they entered the field independently, and the Panhard-Levassor designs of 1891–94 are of primary importance. They were true automobiles, not carriages modified for self-propulsion.

Daimler’s 1889 car was a departure from previous practice. It was based on a framework of light tubing, it had the engine in the rear, its wheels were driven by a belt, and it was steered by a tiller. Remarkably, it had four speeds. This car had obvious commercial value, and in the following year the Daimler Motoren-Gesellschaft was founded. The British Daimler automobile was started as a manufactory licensed by the German company but later became quite independent of it. (To distinguish machines made by the two firms in the early years, the German cars are usually referred to as Cannstatt-Daimlers.) The Daimler and Benz firms were merged in 1926, and products thereafter have been sold under the name Mercedes-Benz. This practice continues, despite the 1998 merger with the American firm Chrysler Corporation to form DaimlerChrysler AG (from 2007, Daimler AG).

(Read Lee Iacocca’s Britannica entry on Chrysler.)