Table of Contents
References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics
Also called:
building construction
On the Web:
CiteSeerX - Construction Sector (PDF) (Apr. 19, 2025)

Reinforced concrete, because of its inherent strength in compression, is primarily used for long spans in funicular compression forms, including vaults, shells, and domes. Thin parabolic shell vaults stiffened with ribs have been built with spans up to about 90 meters (300 feet). More complex forms of concrete shells have been made, including hyperbolic paraboloids, or saddle shapes, and intersecting parabolic vaults. An example of the latter is the CNIT Exhibition Hall in Paris, which consists of six intersecting double-shell parabolic vaults built to span a triangular space 216 meters (708 feet) on a side with supports only at the apexes of the triangle. Reinforced concrete domes, which are usually also of parabolic section, are built either in ribbed form or as thin shells. The maximum span of these domes is about 200 meters (660 feet).

Another funicular form used in concrete, though it is really a composite structure, is the inverted dome, or dish. As in the steel bicycle wheel, a concrete compression ring resting on columns at the perimeter of the structure supports radial steel cables that run inward and downward to a small steel tension ring at the centre, forming the dish shape. The cable network is stiffened against wind forces by encasing it in a poured concrete dish; structures of this type have been built with spans of up to 126 meters (420 feet).

Factors in the built environment

Acoustics

Long-span auditoriums involve considerations in acoustics: audiences wish to hear speakers clearly and to hear music with appropriate tonality. Unfortunately, acoustic requirements for speech quality often conflict with those for music, and it is difficult to design an auditorium that is satisfactory for both. The best single measure of acoustic performance for auditoriums is the reverberation time, which is directly proportional to the volume of the hall and inversely proportional to the amount of sound absorbency within it, including wall and ceiling surfaces and the audience itself. Measured in the sound range of 500–1,000 hertz, rooms with short reverberation times of one to 1.5 seconds are good for the intelligibility of speech, while longer reverberation times of 1.5 to 2.5 seconds add richness of tone to musical performances. Thus, adding sound-absorbent material to a hall improves it for speech but detracts from its musical qualities. People are excellent sound absorbers, and thus the audience has a distinct impact on auditorium acoustics; to keep this effect constant with varying audience size, auditorium seats are usually upholstered to serve as surrogate spectators of the same sound absorbency. Curved surfaces, which tend to focus sound, are either avoided in auditoriums or covered with sound-absorbent material. Electronic sound-amplification systems can be used to assist speakers in large halls but generally are not satisfactory for music. Other long-span buildings, such as covered stadiums and exhibition halls, receive only minor acoustical treatment.

Environmental control systems

Atmosphere systems in long-span buildings must handle the considerable heat and odor generation from population densities of less than one square meter (11 square feet) per person. Air must be moved fairly rapidly through the population zone to maintain an acceptable air-change rate.

News

U.S. Architecture Pavilion Draws Lessons From the American Porch Apr. 10, 2025, 11:34 PM ET (New York Times)

architecture, the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. The practice of architecture is employed to fulfill both practical and expressive requirements, and thus it serves both utilitarian and aesthetic ends. Although these two ends may be distinguished, they cannot be separated, and the relative weight given to each can vary widely. Because every society—settled or nomadic—has a spatial relationship to the natural world and to other societies, the structures they produce reveal much about their environment (including climate and weather), history, ceremonies, and artistic sensibility, as well as many aspects of daily life.

The characteristics that distinguish a work of architecture from other built structures are (1) the suitability of the work to use by human beings in general and the adaptability of it to particular human activities, (2) the stability and permanence of the work’s construction, and (3) the communication of experience and ideas through its form. All these conditions must be met in architecture. The second is a constant, while the first and third vary in relative importance according to the social function of buildings. If the function is chiefly utilitarian, as in a factory, communication is of less importance. If the function is chiefly expressive, as in a monumental tomb, utility is a minor concern. In some buildings, such as churches and city halls, utility and communication may be of equal importance.

The present article treats primarily the forms, elements, methods, and theory of architecture. For the history of architecture in antiquity, see the sections on ancient Greece and Rome in Western architecture; as well as Anatolian art and architecture; Arabian art and architecture; Egyptian art and architecture; Iranian art and architecture; Mesopotamian art and architecture; and Syro-Palestinian art and architecture. For later historical and regional treatments of architecture, see African architecture; Chinese architecture; Japanese architecture; Korean architecture; Oceanic art and architecture; Western architecture; Central Asian arts; Islamic arts; South Asian arts; and Southeast Asian arts. For a discussion of the place of architecture and architectural theory in the realm of the arts, see aesthetics. For related forms of artistic expression, see city; interior design; and urban planning.

Use

The types of architecture are established not by architects but by society, according to the needs of its different institutions. Society sets the goals and assigns to the architect the job of finding the means of achieving them. This section of the article is concerned with architectural typology, with the role of society in determining the kinds of architecture, and with planning—the role of the architect in adapting designs to particular uses and to the general physical needs of human beings.