This theme naturally leads to an exploration of the artistic elements in history. It is as naive to think of the historian merely writing up findings as to picture him handing over facts to the sociologist to be allocated to the proper laws. Some idea of the literary forms that history might take are present throughout the research process, but they are also to a degree controlled by that process.

Although Aristotle said that it made no difference to the essence of a history whether it was in prose or in verse, no truly historical epic poem has ever been written. Historians do not even go in for ballads, nor is one likely to see them trying their hands at history painting or writing librettos for operas. The vast majority of historical writing will thus be discursive prose works, though the chance that some of their words may be performed by actors is greater now than it once was.

Writing with wit and elegance is like moving with speed for an athlete—it cannot be coached. Anyone, however, can learn to write clear, plain prose. Luckily, that is what colleagues and even the general public expect from historians. Besides mastering the rules that books—or computer programs—recommend for this style, such as avoiding passive verbs, substituting short or at least Germanic for Latinate words where possible, and the like, there are some problems peculiar to historical writing.

One is how much of the sources to quote. The American historian Jack Hexter wrote entertainingly about this issue, pointing out that excessive quotation breaks up the flow of the narrative and introduces discordant voices into the text. On the other hand, there are times when a point can be made only with the exact words of a source. There is no rule that shows where the happy medium lies, and this is one of the facts that justify calling history a craft. Another case for tact and discrimination is the use of footnotes. Here good writers recommend not showing off. The reader is entitled to some way of seeing how accurately the historian has interpreted—or quoted—the evidence, but footnotes should not be overlong and in particular should not be converted into minibibliographies, especially when these have as one purpose to show how many books and articles the historian has read (or wants to persuade the reader that he has read).

It seems only too obvious to say that the historian should write accurately, but this is not a simple matter. Lack of a technical vocabulary is often interpreted as a defect of history, but it need not be so. Quantitative findings, for example, look more “scientific” if they are presented as percentages, but besides the necessity to present some measure giving variation from central tendency, such as standard deviations, very few historical sources lend themselves to the sort of accuracy that makes 63.8 percent any more accurate than nearly two-thirds. Wherever possible, quantitative series should be presented graphically; nothing is drearier, as Hexter notes, than attempting to write out a series of numbers in prose. The moral judgments and causal statements in historical writing are also criticized as vague, but they may be precise enough for ambiguous situations, where moral responsibility may be distributed among a number of agents or the precise relationship between causes and preconditions is tangled. Historians can take heart from the failure of translation machines to cope with all the nuances possible in natural languages.

So advice about how to write history is readily available, but historians may lack motivation. The reward structure of the profession certainly affords few incentives to learn good writing. Graduate training overwhelmingly concentrates on research techniques; courses in writing for historians are rare and almost never compulsory. The other guarantor of literary quality, copyediting, is becoming a lost art. It is apparently considered too expensive by trade publishers, and even university presses tend to farm it out as a cottage industry, without consistent quality control. Furthermore, most historians today in almost every country write mainly or only for other historians. To be qualified for lifetime employment, a historian must produce works of original research—as many as possible—that are favourably evaluated by peers. Other professionals, in other words, are the primary audience for which the young historian must write. They may not prize literary skill very highly in comparison with demonstrated mastery of the sources, and they already know many things that would have to be explained to general readers.

It is increasingly expected that a young historian in search of a tenured teaching position will publish not only a first book, based on a doctoral thesis, but also a second and usually more ambitious one. In this respect American universities are beginning to approximate the expectation of two theses long common in French and German ones.

Insistence on early and copious production militates against choosing themes of general interest, because it takes much longer to write books about those. The professionalization of history and the invariably accompanying division of labour have also meant that historians focus on smaller segments of the historical record. Nor are they immune to the lure of the “MPU,” or minimum publishable unit—the smallest bit of a project that an editor will accept and that, duly noted in a curriculum vitae, will reassure department chairs or funding agencies of one’s continuing scholarly vitality.

Collaborative research may be one remedy against this tendency to know more and more about less and less, but collaborative writing, absent divine aid, is unlikely to achieve outstanding literary merit. (According to legend, the 70 translators of the Hebrew Bible into Greek all came up with identical texts; the only example of a great literary work done by committee is the King James translation of the Bible.)

Historians consequently find themselves in a paradoxical position. Public interest in the past has seldom been higher. Some is in the nostalgic mode, and this can be expected to increase as the percentage of elderly people in the population rises. Some is in the service of political agendas, sometimes for entirely understandable reasons; for example, Jews are determined that nobody forget the Holocaust, and defenders of capitalism will continue to note that the Soviet experiment turned out badly. In addition, now that it is customary for everyone to call his ethnic background a “heritage,” the commemoration and celebration of ancestors is a growth industry.

One of the more bizarre manifestations of historical interest has been the apology. The prime minister of Britain, for example, apologized for the inaction of Britain during the great Irish famine, and the pope apologized for the 16th-century St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre (actually committed by the French monarch).

Interest in history also benefits from the insatiable demand of the media for “product,” which has vastly strained the capacity of writers to meet it with purely invented materials. Thus, the “docudrama,” “nonfiction novel,” and television miniseries “ based on a true story” have proliferated to supplement the flagging imaginations of the fabulators. All this has been going on while interest in academic history appears to be declining, if figures for undergraduate enrollments or academic appointments are a fair indicator.

This paradox is both a challenge and an opportunity for academic historians. They are unlikely to see a repetition of the publishing success of Thomas Macaulay’s History of England (1849–61)—significantly, not by a professional historian—but the capacity to write for the general public is not intrinsically incompatible with holding university appointments.

The challenge to historical writing for a wider readership is clear. Few historians are taught to do it; many feel they do not need to do it; and professional rewards are not given for doing it. Yet some historians are not content to leave presentation of accounts of the past to novelists and filmmakers and are responding to some of the opportunities presented by the public interest in history. Some of them are relaxing the conventions of historical writing in the interests of greater liveliness. Historians are taught, for example, never to use first-person singular or second-person pronouns. By banishing “I”—“the most disgusting pronoun,” according to Gibbon—from the text, the historian can make it appear that an omniscient observer has written it. The great Marc Bloch, however, advocated bringing the reader into the research process by recounting the difficulties and occasional triumphs that the author experienced, not only helping to signal what is well-grounded and what is more speculative but also, if well done, sharing some of the puzzle-solving excitement that inspires people to be historians in the first place.

Another convention, in place only since the professionalization in the 19th century, forbids historians to quote anything but the actual words spoken by their subjects. Even the invented speeches of Thucydides, so scrupulously identified as such, fell under this ban. However, Garrett Mattingly (1900–62), generally regarded as the master of historical narrative among American historians, enlivened his work with speeches he wrote and attributed to historical characters—without always identifying them as invented. Other historians are now following his example. The results have not always been happy, because writing convincing dialogue is difficult, but since historians often claim to re-create the inner thoughts of people they are writing about, creating dialogue for them is no more speculative than creating indirect speech.

The ability to create convincing dialogue for historical characters is essential to creators of historical plays, movies, and television series. These creators have often, for historians, been all too creative—though even the fantasies of some modern movies are models of accuracy compared with some famous historical plays. (In Friedrich von Schiller’s Maid of Orleans, for example, Joan of Arc dies in battle.) In the 1990s an American cable channel showed films about the past with commentary afterward from a panel of historians, who usually pointed out what liberties had been taken with the historical record rather than criticizing the aesthetic impact of the film. Obviously, a more satisfactory solution would be for historians to be more proactive. Natalie Zemon Davis served as the historical counselor for a movie version of the Martin Guerre story. Her services were not confined merely to ascertaining the authenticity of the props—something Hollywood studios were quite meticulous about—but extended to working with the actors on their characterizations and with the director on the plot. French directors have often worked with historical counselors; it is a practice that would improve the historical literacy of American audiences.

The technological advances of the 21st century will undoubtedly bring new opportunities for the presentation of history. In the early 2000s there was already an interactive video game whose premise was that an evil woman has torn out the pages of the book in which human history is inscribed and substituted false information for them. The player, armed with a reference work, must replace the falsehoods with the correct information supplied by that work. The game is an apt allegory. Time itself has done its best to efface knowledge of the human past and has allowed ideologically distorted versions of that past to flourish instead. The historian’s task is to defeat time and the loss or deceits of memory. Unfortunately, there is no data bank of infallible truths to which one can have recourse—but that simply means that the game is never over.

There may come a time when it no longer seems worth playing, as some postmodernist thinkers have suggested—though postmodernism defines itself as post through a historical judgment. Historical thought, turned on itself, shows that history has not always existed, nor is it found in every culture. Historians, of all people, are reluctant to pose as prophets, because they know best how various are the twists and turns of human events. It is therefore impossible to find a conclusive argument against the suggestion of Foucault that history, like the human subject, will prove to be a transitory conception.

Postmodernism taught that texts allow many interpretations and that there is nothing other than the text. Its attacks on “essentialism” made it much harder to use “history” in such a way as to attribute will or agency to it, or even a capacity to teach. (Here Hegel had anticipated this position by saying that all one can learn from history is that humans have never learned from history.) Historians cannot make the grandiose claims for their discipline that were credible in the 19th century. Nevertheless, they know that there was a Holocaust, and they know that, despite Joseph Stalin’s efforts to make him an “unperson,” Leon Trotsky played some role in the Russian Revolution. Also, it makes quite a difference whether there was a Holocaust or not. This is reducing the case against total relativism or constructivism to truisms, but truisms are nonetheless true. It is hard to imagine that humanity’s grasp of the past, so laboriously achieved and tenuous as it is, would lightly be loosened.