Conducting hostilities
- Related Topics:
- war crime
- prisoner of war
- just war
- neutrality
- contraband
Although the Hague Conventions, concerning the conduct of hostilities, apply to the states that are party to them in the event of war, the various Geneva Conventions of 1949 (and the 1977 Protocols to them) come into operation where there is an armed conflict between two or more contracting parties even if a state of war is not recognized by one (or both) of them. They also apply to the occupation of another state’s territory even if the occupation meets with no armed resistance. Since much of the Hague Conventions reflect customary international law, it can be assumed that these laws of war (or the jus in bello) also apply whether or not any declarations of war exist. In considering the legal conduct of a conflict, the laws of war take no account of its causes. This means that the combatants of the aggressor nation are owed the same rights as those of the attacked state.
The controls placed on the actual methods and means of war are to a large extent based on the Hague Conventions, but there are also a number of important provisions in the first Protocol of 1977, the 1954 Hague Convention on cultural property, and the 1981 Conventional Weapons Convention.
Lawful combatants
Those who may lawfully take part in hostilities are those who would be entitled to prisoner-of-war status if captured. Any other person taking part in a conflict may be treated as an unprivileged belligerent, or a franc-tireur, and he may be punished if captured. Article 4 of the third Geneva Convention of 1949 and article 43 of the first Protocol of 1977 provide that a lawful combatant is generally a member of the armed forces of a state. The term also includes members of the merchant marine and inhabitants of unoccupied territory who, on the approach of the enemy, spontaneously take up arms to resist the invading forces until the territory has been occupied.
A spy is in a unique position, since he is often a member of the armed forces of a state; but if he acts in disguise in the zone of operations of an enemy in order to obtain information to pass on to his own forces, he may be punished provided he has a trial.
A mercenary is not protected at all; he has the right to be neither a combatant nor a prisoner of war. A mercenary is defined in the first Protocol of 1977 (which neither the United Kingdom nor the United States has ratified) as a person who is specially recruited to take part in a conflict, who is motivated essentially by private gain, and who is paid substantially more than the ordinary armed forces of the state to which he has been recruited. He must not be a national of the recruiting state or a member of the armed forces of a party to the conflict.
Guerrilla fighters are not solely a modern phenomenon, although during and after World War II they became a common feature of armed conflicts, especially those occurring in the developing world. The third Geneva Convention of 1949 required what is called an organized resistance movement to possess four characteristics before its members could be treated as prisoners of war upon capture. These were: (1) being commanded by a person responsible for his subordinates, (2) having a fixed and distinctive sign recognizable at a distance, (3) carrying arms openly, and (4) conducting operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war. In time, it became apparent that two of these four conditions were difficult for guerrilla fighters to meet. Were guerrillas to wear a fixed and distinctive sign recognizable at a distance or carry arms openly, they could hardly operate with any safety in occupied territory. The first Protocol of 1977 made a number of important changes that bind those states that are parties to it. For example, one of the major problems with recognizing guerrilla fighters as lawful combatants is that they may not, in fact, distinguish themselves from the civilian population—in which case, all civilians are placed at risk. Therefore, article 43 of the Protocol requires all combatants to distinguish themselves from the civilian population while they are engaged in an attack or in a military operation preparatory to an attack. However, even if a combatant does not do this, he will still be entitled to treatment as a lawful combatant if he carries his arms openly during each military engagement and during such time as he is visible to the adversary while engaged in a military deployment preceding the launching of an attack in which he is to participate.
A member of the armed forces of a party to a conflict will lose his status as a prisoner of war upon capture if he commits an act of hostility while wearing civilian clothes. In the case of Osman Bin Mohammed v. Public Prosecutor (1968), the Privy Council in London held that members of the Indonesian armed forces who had landed in Singapore during an armed conflict between Indonesia and Malaysia were not entitled to be treated as prisoners of war after having placed a bomb in a civilian building that caused the deaths of civilians. This loss of prisoner status will also apply, among the states that are parties to the first Protocol of 1977, if their combatants do not at least carry their arms openly, as described above.
Limits on the methods and means of war
Weapons
Article 22 of the Regulations Annexed to the Hague Convention of 1907 provides that “the right of belligerents to adopt means of injuring the enemy is not unlimited.” This particular principle underpins much of the law in this area, and there are many examples of it. Article 23 of the same treaty, for instance, prohibits certain activities such as the employment of poison or poisoned weapons, killing or injuring enemy combatants treacherously, attacking those who have surrendered, or declaring that no quarter will be given. It also prohibits the employment of arms, projectiles, or material calculated to cause unnecessary suffering. One reason for this approach, as stated in the Declaration of St. Petersburg of 1868, is that “the only legitimate object which states should endeavour to accomplish during war is to weaken the military forces of the enemy.”
This principle explains, to some extent, the prohibition on the use of certain weapons. Hence, the use of chemical and bacteriological weapons was banned by the 1925 Geneva Protocol. By the Bacteriological Weapons Convention of 1972, states party to it agreed never in any circumstances to develop, produce, stockpile, retain, or acquire bacteriological or biological weapons or toxins. If a ban on chemical weapons came about, it would likely take the same form.
The use of nuclear weapons against enemy combatants is not subject to any express prohibitions. A number of international lawyers, however, take the view that their use is implicitly prohibited by the principles stated above, because radiation effects can be considered not only a form of poison but also a weapon calculated to cause unnecessary suffering. The General Assembly of the United Nations condemned their use in Resolution 1653 of 1961, but the value of this resolution is considerably weakened by the fact that, of the nuclear-weapon states, only the Soviet Union voted for it. In Shimoda v. Japan (1983), a Japanese court held that the use of atomic weapons against Nagasaki and Hiroshima was contrary to international law, not merely because of the type of weapon used but because bombardment, by any means, of the civilian population of those two cities was contrary to the Hague Conventions of 1907.
Like nuclear weapons, incendiary weapons are not specifically banned unless used against the civilian population. It might be argued, however, that their use against enemy combatants (as opposed to military equipment) would infringe the 1925 Geneva Gas Protocol, since they could come within the prescription of “all analogous liquids, materials, or devices.”
The Vietnam War illustrated the dangers that modern weapons can cause to the environment. The use in that conflict of chemical herbicides and other methods of de-forestation, along with attempts to alter weather patterns, called the attention of the world to such activities. The result was the 1977 United Nations convention on environmental modification, which requires states not to engage in military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting, or severe effects. The first Protocol of 1977 also prohibits the employment of methods or means of warfare that are intended, or may be expected, to cause widespread, long-term, and severe damage to the natural environment. States are specifically directed by this protocol to consider whether any new weapons that they might develop would infringe any rules of international law.
On the seas, naval forces may attack enemy warships. The sinking of the Argentine warship General Belgrano, therefore, was not contrary to international law despite its being attacked outside the Total Exclusion Zone that the British government had declared around the Falkland Islands.
Civilians
According to customary international law, only members of the armed forces of a party to a conflict can take part in hostilities, and the law has always attempted to draw a clear distinction between the lawful combatant, who may be attacked, and the civilian, who may not.
One of the Fundamental Rules of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts, which were prepared by the International Committee of the Red Cross in 1978, requires parties to a conflict to distinguish at all times “between the civilian population and combatants in order to spare civilian population and property. Neither the civilian population as such nor civilian persons shall be the object of attack. Attacks shall be directed solely against military objectives.” Restrictions on the use of chemical or nuclear weapons against the civilian population have been discussed above. In addition, the 1981 Conventional Weapons Convention specifically prohibits the use of mines, booby traps, and other similar devices and incendiary weapons directed against the civilian population or used indiscriminately, and the first Protocol of 1977 imposes very detailed target restraints in order to protect civilians. For example, aerial bombardment engaged in for the sole purpose of terrorizing the civilian population is prohibited, and the use of aircraft to carry out such a role would therefore be illegal. Merchant ships may in limited circumstances be attacked, but they may not be sunk by a submarine without its first having placed passengers, crew, and ship’s papers in a place of safety.
Neutrals
The fifth Hague Convention of 1907 declares that the territory of neutral powers is inviolable and that a neutral state has a duty to prevent a belligerent state from carrying the conflict to its territory. In particular, troops belonging to the army of a belligerent state who enter the territory of a neutral must be interned. Also, a neutral must act evenhandedly to all belligerent states; for this reason, the United Kingdom declared its neutrality in the war between Iran and Iraq (1980–88), refusing to sell either side military equipment that would have significantly enhanced its capability to prolong the conflict.
Neutral shipping may be stopped on the high seas (as occurred in the Iran–Iraq War when a British merchant vessel was stopped by an Iranian warship) to check on the carriage of contraband. In naval warfare, the 13th Hague Convention of 1907 bans belligerents from conducting military operations in the territorial waters of a neutral state, and neutrals themselves have duties imposed on them not to assist the warships of belligerent states.
Prohibited areas of combat
Military activities of any kind cannot be carried out on the Moon (the Moon Treaty of 1979), Antarctica (the Antarctic Treaty of 1959), or on the territory (including the airspace) or territorial waters of neutral states. In addition, nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction cannot be orbited around the Earth (the Outer Space Treaty of 1967) or placed on the seabed (the Seabed Treaty of 1971).
Prisoners of war
The third Geneva Convention of 1949 provides the basic framework of protection accorded to a prisoner of war. He is protected from the moment he falls into the power of an enemy until his final release and repatriation. No form of coercion may be inflicted on him to secure information of any kind; he need only give his name, rank, date of birth, and serial number. When an Argentine army officer captured by British forces during the Falklands conflict was alleged to have been responsible for the disappearance of French and Swedish nationals in Argentina prior to the conflict, he could not be compelled to disclose information on the subject and was released.
A prisoner of war is entitled to decent and humane treatment, to be evacuated from the combat zone, and to be granted rights and duties as similar as possible to those of the armed forces of the detaining power. No reprisals may be taken against prisoners of war; they may not be treated in a way contrary to the Convention even though an enemy state treats its prisoners of war in such a way. Officers may not be compelled to work, and other ranks may not be compelled to do dangerous or unhealthy work. Article 52 of the third Convention of 1949 goes on to provide that the removal of mines or similar devices shall be considered dangerous labour.
In order to ensure that prisoners of war are accorded the treatment laid down in the Conventions, states must ensure that a protecting power is appointed to act on their behalf. A protecting power is a neutral state acceptable to the state that holds prisoners of war. There were no protecting powers appointed during the Vietnam War or the Iran–Iraq War, but in the Falklands conflict Switzerland acted for the United Kingdom and Brazil for Argentina. A state may allow the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) to act as a substitute protecting power. The ICRC has, in addition, a right to visit prisoner-of-war camps.
Protecting powers (or the ICRC) must be kept informed if a prisoner of war is to be tried (rather than being given disciplinary punishment) for an offense, in order, for instance, that the protecting power might find the accused a lawyer. If the death penalty is imposed, it cannot be carried out for at least six months after the judgment and after sentence has been communicated to the protecting power. A prisoner of war may be tried for an offense committed prior to capture (such as a war crime), but he is entitled to retain his status as a prisoner of war even if convicted.
The use of weapons against prisoners of war attempting to escape constitutes an extreme measure and is to be preceded by warnings. The detaining power must hold an inquiry into the death of a prisoner of war and notify the protecting power. Such an incident occurred in the Falklands conflict, when a British soldier shot and killed an Argentine prisoner of war whom he believed was attempting to escape. The resultant inquiry exonerated the soldier, and a report was passed to the ICRC.
At the conclusion of hostilities prisoners of war are to be repatriated. Problems occurred at the conclusion of the Korean War when a number of North Koreans did not wish to return. A repatriation commission was established in 1953, and remaining prisoners of war were transferred to it. It has become more common to repatriate able-bodied prisoners of war before the end of hostilities. To a limited extent this occurred in the Iran–Iraq War, but it was a major feature of the Falklands conflict.
Occupation
World War II illustrated that civilians in occupied territory were largely unprotected by the laws of war. In consequence, the fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 provided detailed rules for their protection. A protected person is anyone who, at a given moment and in any manner whatsoever, finds himself, in case of a conflict or occupation, in the hands of a party to the conflict or occupying power of whom he is not a national. The inhabitants of occupied territory are, therefore, protected persons under the Convention; they are entitled to humane treatment and to respect for their person, honour, family rights, religion, manners, and customs. Article 34 of the fourth Convention specifically prohibits the taking of hostages and reprisals against them or their property. Article 49 prohibits the transfer of protected persons out of occupied territory unless, in a given area, the security of the population or imperative military reasons so demand. After the war of June 1967, Israel occupied territory in the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights, but it claimed that the fourth Convention did not apply to them. The United Nations took a different view in resolutions in 1988 when it specifically declared that the Convention was applicable to all the Palestinian and other Arab territories occupied by Israel since 1967. The resolutions went on to condemn a number of Israeli practices in these territories, such as the killing, wounding, and deportation of Palestinian civilians (who are protected persons under the fourth Convention), during uprisings against Israeli rule.
The occupying state may make such laws for occupied territory as enable it to carry out its obligations under the Convention, to maintain the orderly government of the territory, and to ensure its safety. At the same time, it must respect other laws in force before the occupation. Requisitions for the needs of the occupying army may be taken, but only on payment, and foodstuffs and medical supplies may be requisitioned only if the needs of the civilian population have been taken into account. If the supply of such items is inadequate for the needs of the civilian population, then the occupying state will be under an obligation to bring them into the territory. The Nürnberg trial concluded that “the German armies were to be fed out of Soviet territory, even if many millions of people were to starve to death.” It is this type of conduct that the fourth Convention attempts to prevent.
Protected persons who are not members of the armed forces and who use force against occupying forces are not entitled to special treatment, since they are not entitled to prisoner-of-war status upon capture. The occupying state may place them on trial for breach of either the ordinary laws of the territory or the laws it has imposed. However, if it is to sentence such a person to death, it must take into account that the protected person does not owe the occupier any duty of allegiance. Also, a state that occupies territory does not thereby obtain good title to it. Various UN resolutions confirm this; a General Assembly resolution in November 1988 reaffirmed that the “occupation by Israel of the Palestinian territories since 1967, including Jerusalem, in no way changes the legal status of those territories.”
