Regional action

Chapter VIII of the UN Charter permits the existence of regional arrangements or agencies for dealing with such matters of international peace and security as are appropriate for regional action. It goes on to provide, in article 53, that no enforcement action shall be taken under regional arrangements or by regional agencies without the authorization of the Security Council. Article 54 states that the Security Council shall be kept informed of all such activities. On a number of occasions, states have justified the use of force (or the threat of force) under this part of the Charter, despite the lack of prior authorization from the Security Council, by arguing that the measures they took did not amount to enforcement action and therefore did not require the authorization of the Security Council. Thus, the United States, after stopping ships on the high seas in 1962 to search them for missiles or missile parts intended for Cuba, argued that this was not enforcement action since the regional arrangement (in this case, the Organization of American States) had merely made a recommendation to member states and had not rendered a decision that had to be enforced. A similar argument was used following the Grenada incident: this action, the United States declared, was not directed against a government but was merely carried out to restore law and order to the island under the aegis of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States.

War by proxy

Armed conflict need not be, and often is not, of the traditional type—that is, a conflict between regular armed forces in the territory of one or more states. Nicaragua v. United States showed that an armed attack (which would give the attacked state the right to act in self-defense) must be understood as “including not merely action by regular armed forces across an international border, but also the sending by or on behalf of a state of armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries, which carry out acts of armed force against another state of such gravity as to amount to an actual armed attack conducted by regular forces, or its substantial involvement therein.” Therefore, if a state sent an armed band into another state to depose its rulers or to attack civilians of that state, then the sending state would have committed an armed attack, giving the attacked state the right to act in self-defense. As discussed above, the response must be proportionate to the aggression; in assessing this, the accumulation of events may be taken into account.

Civil war

The term civil war, although perhaps dated, is used here to mean a noninternational armed conflict. It therefore covers any internal conflict, whatever the motive for the fighting.

It is often difficult to determine whether a conflict is truly internal or international, since other states may be involved to some extent. If it is indeed an international armed conflict, then an attacked state may seek the military assistance of any other state, which will then be acting in collective self-defense with it. (An example of this was the Vietnam War, although, it should be said, many states regarded it as a civil war.) Also, if the conflict has become international, then the 1949 Geneva Conventions and the whole of the body of the laws of war will apply to the combatants as well as to civilians caught up in the conflict. Should the war be a civil one (which can properly be described as an armed conflict), international law would point to the nonintervention of other states, and only article 3 of each of the 1949 Geneva Conventions would apply (protecting only those not taking an active part in the hostilities). Further protection is given (mainly to those who do not take part in the conflict) by the second Protocol of 1977, which applies to civil wars in which dissident armed forces, under responsible command, exercise such control over a part of the territory of a contracting state as to enable them to carry out sustained and concerted military operations and to implement the Protocol. For these reasons, the Protocol would not apply to the conflicts in Northern Ireland or Spain, in which neither the Irish Republican Army nor the Basque separatists controlled any territory, while it would apply in the conflict in El Salvador, in which rebels controlled sizable areas of the countryside.

War of national liberation

The first Protocol of 1977 provides that peoples fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes in the exercise of their right of self-determination are to be treated as if they were engaged in an international armed conflict and not a civil war. There is considerable difficulty over the meaning of this phrase, and it may be difficult to apply in practice.

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