- Also called:
- adjective law
- Key People:
- Gnaeus Flavius
The climactic and decisive part of an Anglo-American civil action is the trial, in which the parties present their proof in a concentrated fashion to a single judge and sometimes to a jury. The climactic event in a lawsuit based on European codes is the hearing before the full court, which may occur in several widely separated segments.
The common-law trial: judge and jury
If the suit has ended during the pretrial stage, the parties must prepare for trial, which in the United States may be held with a jury. At the trial the parties present evidence in an uninterrupted fashion, without any possibility for additional proof after its close. In common-law systems many of the procedural rules reflect the division of responsibilities between judge and jury: the jury determines the facts of the case; the judge determines the applicable law and oversees the parties’ presentation of the facts to the jury. These procedural rules designed to accommodate jury trials remain largely intact, even though, in common-law systems other than that of the United States, in almost all cases the judge will determine both the facts and the law.
The order of trial
A common-law trial typically begins with the attorneys for the plaintiff and the defendant making opening statements, outlining what each conceives to be the nature of the case and what each hopes to prove as the trial proceeds. Presentation of the plaintiff’s case follows. The plaintiff’s lawyer introduces documents and calls and questions witnesses, whom the attorney for the defense then cross-examines. When the plaintiff’s attorney has concluded his presentation, the defendant’s attorney frequently will ask for a dismissal of the suit, claiming that the plaintiff has failed to establish a prima facie case (i.e., a case sufficient until contradicted by evidence). If that motion fails, the defendant will call and examine witnesses in order to establish his defenses, and these witnesses are subject to cross-examination by the plaintiff’s attorney. The attorneys for each side then make a closing argument, marshaling the evidence presented in a light most favourable to their respective clients.
When the case is tried before a jury, the judge will instruct the jury on the applicable law, and the jury will deliberate in private until it reaches a verdict, which will then be announced in open court. In cases without a jury, upon completion of the closing arguments, the judge may render a decision immediately or may take the case under submission for a later decision.
Rules of evidence
The parties, and not the judge, have the primary obligation to call and question the witnesses, but they must do so in accord with the law of evidence. When one party objects to the introduction of any evidence, the judge acts as arbiter, deciding whether and under what conditions the evidence may be admitted. The party objecting to the evidence must state the grounds for the objection, and the judge must permit the evidence unless the specified grounds given by the attorney apply.
Directed verdicts
When the party having the burden of proof of an issue has completed its presentation, the opposing side may ask the court to rule as a matter of law that the evidence presented does not provide sufficient proof for the party who presented the evidence. If the judge agrees that sufficient proof is lacking in a case tried by a jury, he may “direct a verdict” (sometimes called “granting judgment as a matter of law”), which in effect removes the case from the jury. If used properly, such a verdict does not violate the constitutional right to a jury trial because a verdict is directed only when there has not been sufficient evidence introduced to create a material issue of disputed fact for the jury to decide. The granting of a directed verdict results in a final judgment and the termination of the trial.
Instructions to the jury
At the conclusion of the trial, the judge must instruct the jury as to the applicable law governing the case in order to guide it in arriving at a just verdict. In practice the parties will propose instructions for the judge’s consideration. The judge then selects from among the proposals that have been submitted and offers the parties the opportunity, without the jury present, to object to any proposed instruction that they deem to be incorrect. As with the introduction of evidence, failure to object generally precludes a party from arguing later—on appeal or in a motion for a new trial—that the instructions given were incorrect.
Types of verdict
In almost all cases the judge will instruct the jury to return a general verdict—that is, a decision merely stating the ultimate conclusion that it has reached (e.g., the award of X dollars to the plaintiff or a verdict that the plaintiff recover nothing). This form of verdict gives considerable leeway to the jury and permits, if it does not encourage, some deviation from a strictly logical and technical application of the law. An alternative that offers greater control over the decision-making process is the special verdict, which requires the jury to answer a series of specific factual questions proposed by the judge, who will then himself determine the proper conclusion, based upon the jury’s responses to the questions asked. Because of the difficulty in drawing up questions that cover completely the issues of the case, the special verdict is cumbersome and not frequently used.
New trial and other relief
After the completion of a trial, either party may request the trial judge to vacate the verdict and grant a new trial. Various grounds are available for requesting a new trial, including judicial error, excessiveness of the verdict, and misconduct by jury or counsel. The judge has considerable discretion in ruling on such a motion—a decision to grant a new trial is seldom overturned on appeal. The grant of a new trial, unlike the directed verdict, does not result in the judge substituting his opinion for that of the jury but only mandates that another jury hear the case at another trial. In the limited circumstances in which a judge may grant a directed verdict, he can also substitute his decision for that of the jury by a judgment not on the verdict.