The morphology (structure) of the larynx is studied according to the cartilages, muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and membranes of which it is composed.
Cartilages of the larynx
The frame or skeleton of the larynx is composed of several cartilages, three single and three pairs. Single cartilages are the shield-shaped thyroid in front, whose prominence forms the Adam’s apple in the male; the cricoid cartilage below, which resembles a signet ring and connects the thyroid to the trachea or windpipe; and the leaf-shaped epiglottis, or laryngeal lid, on top. Among the paired cartilages are the two arytenoids, which ride on the cricoid plate and move the vocal cords sideways; the two corniculate cartilages of Santorini on top of the arytenoids; and the two cuneiform cartilages of Wrisberg. The cartilages are held together by ligaments and membranes, particularly around their joints. The larynx is connected below to the uppermost ring of the trachea, while above it is connected by the thyrohyoid ligaments to the hyoid bone beneath the tongue. Most of the laryngeal cartilages ossify (turn to bone) to variable degrees with age under the influence of masculinizing hormones. This fact is an important sign in the X-ray diagnosis of certain vocal disorders. If a man shows less ossification than is normal for his age, he may be deficient in male hormones; this may also account for an effeminate sound in his voice. Conversely, when a woman shows increased laryngeal ossification, she may suffer from virilizing hormones, which might also explain any lowering and roughening in her voice.
Laryngeal muscles
There are two types of laryngeal muscles, the external (extrinsic) ones, which move the larynx as a whole, and the internal (intrinsic) ones, which move the vocal folds to shape the glottis. It is helpful to remember that the anatomical names of most such muscles are derived from their origin on one structure to their insertion on another.
The extrinsic muscles comprise the thyropharyngeus, which extends from the posterior border of the thyroid cartilage to the pharyngeal constrictor muscle, and the cricopharyngeus, which extends from the cricoid cartilage to the lower portion of the pharynx and the opening of the esophagus (the food tube that connects the mouth and the stomach). This cricopharyngeus muscle aids in the closing of the esophagus whenever it is not open for swallowing. Under the influence of emotional tension, the cricopharyngeus muscle may go into a spasm, which leads to a painful sensation of tightening in the throat that is usually described as a “lump in the throat.” A disorder of this sort (which was previously referred to as globus hystericus) is now believed to be a sensation of cricopharyngeus spasm from emotional tension or imbalance as the result of excessive activity of the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system.
Extrinsic muscles
Although it is situated outside the laryngeal cartilages, the short cricothyroid muscle, a triangular muscle between the respective two cartilages, is traditionally discussed among the intrinsic (internal) muscles. Whenever this muscle contracts, the cricoid and thyroid cartilages are brought together anteriorly. This moves the anterior (forward) insertion of the vocal cords inside the thyroid wing forward, while their posterior (backward) insertion on the arytenoid cartilages is shifted backward. From this rotation results a marked elongation of the vocal folds clearly visible on X-ray films. This stretching action is the chief mechanism for raising the pitch of the sound generated and thus for the differentiation of vocal registers (e.g., chest voice, falsetto). For embryologic reasons, the cricothyroid is the only laryngeal muscle that has its own nerve supply from the superior laryngeal nerve, a high branch of the vagus nerve (which issues from the brain stem). All other laryngeal muscles are innervated by the recurrent or inferior (low) laryngeal nerve, a low branch of the vagus nerve. This fact is important in the diagnosis of laryngeal paralysis because the resulting immobilization of the vocal cord and the remaining vocal function depend on the type of paralysis—i.e., whether only the high or the low nerve or both of the laryngeal nerves are paralyzed on one side.
Intrinsic muscles
The intrinsic muscles include all of the following. The thyroarytenoid muscle extends from the inside of the anterior edge of the thyroid cartilage to the anterior vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage. This muscle may be separated into two portions, an internal part within the vocal cord and an external part between the vocal cord and the wing of the thyroid cartilage. For the most part, the fibres run parallel with the vocal cord. When they contract, they shorten the cord, make it thick, and round its edge. The external portion assists in bringing the vocal cords together, thus making glottal closure more tight.
The cricoarytenoids are two muscle pairs: one lateral pair (to the side) and one posterior pair (backward). These two pairs of muscles have an antagonistic (opposing) action. The posterior cricoarytenoids are the muscles of inspiration that open the glottis. They arise from the posterior surface of the cricoid plate and are attached, in an upward, forward, and outward direction, to the lateral muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage. When these muscles contract, they rotate the arytenoid outward, thus opening the glottis. The lateral cricoarytenoids belong among the muscles of expiration, the adductor group. They arise from the lateral ring of the cricoid cartilage and insert into the muscular process of the arytenoid in an upward and backward direction. Contraction of the lateral cricoarytenoids rotates the arytenoid cartilages inward so that the vocal folds are brought together.
The two sides of the interarytenoid muscle are blended into one single mass, which extends from the muscular process of one arytenoid to that of the other. The action of this muscle is to pull together the posterior aspect of the arytenoid cartilages, thus closing the posterior portion of the cartilaginous glottis between the vocal processes of the arytenoids.
A fold from the top of the arytenoid to the lateral margin of the epiglottis on each side is supported by a bilateral band of muscle, the aryepiglotticus muscle. This semicircular structure aids in narrowing the laryngeal vestibule by pulling the arytenoids together and the epiglottis down. This is another example of the sphincter action (“valve” function) of all adducting laryngeal muscles that bring the vocal cords together. This sphincter action, by tightening of its closure, is the basis for all laryngeal protection. When this primitive sphincter mechanism intrudes into the refined coordination of phonation, it constricts the voice and causes the throaty quality of retracted resonance. This primitive, protective mechanism is at the root of many functional voice disorders. Moreover, the constricting sphincter action by many muscles is very strong because it is opposed by only one muscle, the abducting posterior cricoarytenoid.
Vocal cords
The two true vocal cords (or folds) represent the chief mechanism of the larynx in its function as a valve for opening the airway for breathing and to close it during swallowing. The vocal cords are supported by the thyroarytenoid ligaments, which extend from the vocal process of the arytenoid cartilages forward to the inside angle of the thyroid wings. This anterior insertion occurs on two closely adjacent points, the anterior commissure. The thyroarytenoid ligament is composed of elastic fibres that support the medial or free margin of the vocal cords.
The inner cavity of the larynx is covered by a continuous mucous membrane, which closely follows the outlines of all structures. Immediately above and slightly lateral to the vocal cords, the membrane expands into lateral excavations, one ventricle of Morgagni on each side. This recess opens anteriorly into a still smaller cavity, the laryngeal saccule or appendix. As the mucous membrane emerges again from the upper surface of each ventricle, it creates a second fold on each side—the ventricular fold, or false cord. These two ventricular folds are parallel to the vocal cords but slightly lateral to them so that the vocal cords remain uncovered when inspected with a mirror. The false cords close tightly during each sphincter action for swallowing; when this primitive mechanism is used for phonation, it causes the severe hoarseness of false-cord voice (ventricular dysphonia).
The mucous membrane ascends on each side from the margins of the ventricular folds of the upper border of the laryngeal vestibule, forming the aryepiglottic folds. These folds extend from the apex of the arytenoids to the lateral margin of the epiglottis. Laterally from this ring enclosing the laryngeal vestibule, the mucous membrane descends downward to cover the upper-outer aspects of the larynx where the mucous membrane blends with the mucous lining of the piriform sinus of each side. These pear-shaped recesses mark the beginning of the entrance of the pharyngeal foodway into the esophagus.
The mucous membrane of the larynx consists of respiratory epithelium made up of ciliated columnar cells. Ciliated cells are so named because they bear hairlike projections that continuously undulate upward toward the oral cavity, moving mucus and polluting substances out of the airways. The true vocal cords, however, are exceptional in that they are covered by stratified squamous epithelium (squamous cells are flat or scalelike) as found in the alimentary tract. The arrangement is functional, since the vocal cords have to bear considerable mechanical strain during their rapid vibration for phonation, which occurs during many hours of the day. The transition from the respiratory to the stratified epithelium above and below the vocal cords is marked by superior and inferior arcuate (arched) lines. Unfortunately, such transitional epithelium also has the drawback of being easily disturbed by chronic irritation, which is one reason why the large majority of laryngeal cancers begin on the vocal cords. The mucous membrane of the larynx contains numerous mucous glands in all areas covered by respiratory epithelium, excepting again the vocal cords. These glands are especially numerous over the epiglottis and in the ventricles of Morgagni. The mucus secreted by these glands serves as a lubricant for the mucous membrane and prevents its drying in the constant airstream.
The vocal cords also mark the division of the larynx into an upper and lower compartment. These divisions reflect the development of the larynx from several embryonal components called branchial arches. The supraglottic portion differs from the one beneath the vocal cords in that the upper portion is innervated sensorially by the superior laryngeal nerve and the lower (infraglottic) portion by the recurrent (or inferior) laryngeal nerve. The lymphatics (i.e., the vessels for the lymph flow) from the upper portion drain in an upward lateral direction, while the lower lymphatics drain in a lateral downward direction.
The space between the vocal cords is called rima glottidis, glottal chink, or simply glottis (Greek for tongue). When the vocal cords are separated (abducted) for respiration, the glottis assumes a triangular shape with the apex at the anterior commissure. During phonation, the vocal cords are brought together (adducted or approximated), so that they lie more or less parallel to each other. The glottis is the origin of voice, although not in the form of a “fluttering tongue” as the Greeks believed.
The vocal cords vary greatly in dimension, the variance depending on the size of the entire larynx, which in turn depends on age, sex, body size, and body type. Before puberty, the larynx of boys and girls is about equally small. During puberty, the male larynx grows considerably under the influence of the male hormones so that eventually it is approximately one-third larger than the female larynx. The larynx and the vocal cords thus reflect body size. In tall, heavy males the vocal cords may be as long as 25 millimetres (one inch), representing the low-pitched instrument of a bass voice. A high-pitched tenor voice is produced by vocal cords of the same length as in a low-voiced female contralto. The highest female voices are produced by the shortest vocal cords (14 millimetres), which are not much longer than the infantile vocal cords before puberty (10–12 millimetres). The larynx is, among other things, a musical instrument that follows the physical laws of acoustics fairly closely.
Substitutes for the larynx
A growing number of middle-aged or older patients have had their larynx removed (laryngectomy) because of cancer. Laryngectomy requires the suturing of the remaining trachea into a hole above the sternum (breastbone), creating a permanent tracheal stoma (or aperture) through which the air enters and leaves the lungs. The oral cavity is reconnected directly to the esophagus. Having lost his pulmonary activator (air from the lungs) and laryngeal sound generator, such an alaryngeal patient is without a voice (aphonic) and becomes effectively speechless; the faint smacking noises made by the remaining oral structures for articulation are practically unintelligible. This type of pseudo-whispering through buccal (mouth) speech is discouraged to help the patient later relearn useful speech on his own. A frequently successful method of rehabilitation for such alaryngeal aphonia is the development of what is called esophageal or belching voice.
Esophageal voice
Some European birds and other animals can produce a voice in which air is actively aspirated into the esophagus and then eructated (belched), as many people can do without practice. The sound generator is formed by the upper esophageal sphincter (the cricopharyngeus muscle in humans). As a replacement for vocal cord function, the substitute esophageal voice is very low in pitch, usually about 60 cycles per second in humans. Training usually elevates this grunting pitch to about 80 or 100 cycles.
Esophageal voice in humans has been reported in the literature since at least 1841 when such a case was presented before the Academy of Sciences in Paris. After the perfection of the laryngectomy procedure at the end of the 19th century, systematic instruction in esophageal (belching) phonation was elaborated, and the principles of this vicarious phonation were explored. Laryngectomized persons in many countries often congregate socially in “Lost Cord Clubs” and exchange solutions of problems stemming from the alaryngeal condition.
Artificial larynx
Approximately one-third of all laryngectomized persons are unable to learn esophageal phonation for various reasons, such as age, general health, hearing loss, illiteracy, linguistic barriers, rural residence, or other social reasons. These persons, however, can use an artificial larynx to substitute for the vocal carrier wave of articulation. Numerous mechanical and pneumatic models have been invented, but the modern electric larynx is most serviceable. It consists of a plastic case about the size of a flashlight, containing ordinary batteries, a buzzing sound source, and a vibrating head that is held against the throat to let the sound enter the pharynx through the skin. Ordinary articulation thus becomes easily audible and intelligible. Other models lead the sound waves through a tube into the mouth or are encased in a special upper dental plate. More recent efforts aim at surgically inserting an electric sound source directly into the neck tissues to produce a more natural sound resembling that of normal speech.
