The physical production of voice has been explained for a long time by the myoelastic or aerodynamic theory, as follows: when the vocal cords are brought into the closed position of phonation by the adducting muscles, a coordinated expiratory effort sets in. Air in the lungs, compressed by the expiratory effort, is driven upward through the trachea against the undersurface of the vocal cords. As soon as the subglottic pressure has risen sufficiently to overcome the closing effort of the vocal cords, the glottis is burst open, a puff of air escapes, the subglottic pressure is reduced, and the elasticity of the glottis together with the effect of the moving air causes the adducted cords to snap shut. The subglottic pressure rises again and the entire cycle is repeated. These cycles of exploding air puffs occur as frequently as the physical interaction of the subglottic pressure with the glottic resistance permits. The latter is determined by the tension of the vocal cords and their closing force. The number of these cycles per second is small for tones of low pitch and much greater for high tones, as will be explained later. The resulting laryngeal fundamental tone thus varies greatly in audible pitch.
According to the myoelastic theory, the production of laryngeal voice is a mechanical phenomenon directed by aerodynamic principles and muscular coordination. The vocal cords vibrate purely passively in the blowing airstream and are merely maintained in their position of phonation by the adducting muscles as these are activated by the laryngeal nerves. This vibration is not an active phenomenon like the whirring of the wings of a flying insect. Evidence for the myoelastic theory can be demonstrated in various ways. High-speed motion pictures of the vocal cords have been made, photographing their vibration at the rate of 4,000 or more frames per second. When such a picture is then projected at regular film speeds of 16 or 24 frames per second, the available film length is greatly extended in duration so that each of the hundreds of vocal-cord vibrations per second can be seen in ultraslow motion. A tone of 250 cycles per second (cps or Hz), for example, filmed at 4,000 frames and played back at 16 frames per second will permit each of the 250 vibrations to be seen for one second. Other evidence supporting the myoelastic theory is found in observations such as the fact that a nearly normal voice can be produced despite bilateral (on both sides) vocal-cord paralysis.
Vocal registers
The basic registers
For many centuries the so-called vocal registers were well known to the classical masters of the bel canto style of singing, the basic registers being called chest voice, midvoice, and head voice. These terms are derived from observations, for example, that in the low-chest register the resonances are felt chiefly over the chest. When sitting on a wooden bench with a large male, one can feel the vibrations of his low voice being transmitted through the back of the bench. In the high head voice, the vibrations are felt chiefly over the skull. The practice of singing is based on several artistic subdivisions in both sexes, depending on factors as discussed below. Other vocal phenomena may be heard below and above normal register limits, such as extra low tones, the “vocal fry.”
The natural transition between two adjacent registers may be compared to the gearshift of a car. The same absolute vehicle speed can be maintained by driving either with the engine turning fast while in low gear or with fewer engine revolutions in the next higher gear. The register mechanism of the human voice is quite similar in this respect. Where the registers overlap, a series of transitional tones may be sung with either ofthe adjacent registers. These tones of the same fundamental frequency, sound level, and basic sound category in different vocal registers have recently been defined as isoparametric tones. In the untrained male voice, the transition between the midvoice and the high falsetto sounds abrupt; this so-called register break is similar to the noisy gearshift in a run-down truck. One aim of vocal education is to teach smoothly equalized register transitions.
Loud phonation of any given tone shifts its register mechanism toward the next lower register; for example, a crescendo falsetto tone grows into loud head voice. Conversely, soft intonation raises the mechanism to the next higher type, as when a loud head tone fades into soft falsetto. This phenomenon is the physiologic basis of messa di voce, the technique of swelling tones. Thus, the characteristic mechanism of each register represents a continuum of intralaryngeal adjustments. In the male voice, the gradual and overlapping transitions of phonic function may be aligned as follows: low chest tones, loud–soft; transition; middle register, loud–soft; transition; loud head voice–soft artistic falsetto–thin natural falsetto. X-ray studies can show the difference between the loud male head voice and the soft male falsetto. The former employs the midvoice mechanism, the latter the falsetto mechanism. In the female voice, the two lower registers behave similarly, while head voice can be only loud or soft and may be followed by a fourth register, the flageolet or whistle register of the highest coloratura sopranos. The Italian term falsetto simply means false soprano, as in a castrato (castrated) singer. Hence, the normal female cannot have a falsetto voice.
Studies of register differences
Studies devoted to the problem of voice register may be divided into two groups: observations of the visible laryngeal mechanism and studies of the audible register differences.
Studies of the visible laryngeal mechanism for the production of different registers began with the laryngoscope. Modern laryngostroboscopes employ the oscillating light of a high-power fluorescent light source that is monitored by the laryngeal vibrations through a throat microphone. Such devices, when they flash on and off at just the right rate, make the vocal cord movements appear much slower than they actually are, so that the observer perceives a slow-motion pattern. High-speed cinematography (moviemaking) has elucidated many details of vocal cord function for the various registers. Radioscopic (X-ray) methods were introduced only a few years after the discovery of X-rays in 1895. Among these, lateral (from the side) radioscopy of the larynx reveals the mechanism of vocal cord tension; frontal X-ray films demonstrate the typical configuration of the vocal cords for each register. Mechanical recordings of the respiratory movements of the chest, originally with rubber belts and lately with electronic strain gauges, disclose the breathing patterns for the various registers. Breath support (appoggio) of singing instruction can be demonstrated through such recordings, as well as by radiography of the chest. Aerodynamic measurements of pressure, flow rate, and volume of the air exhaled during specific phonic tasks have produced additional details. Electromyography (study of muscle currents) involving the insertion of needle electrodes into certain laryngeal muscles permits the isolated recording of finely coordinated muscular effort during the singing in various registers.
A second group of investigations concerns audible register differences as an acoustic phenomenon. Electroacoustic analysis demonstrates the specific sound-wave patterns (harmonic spectra) of each register. In general, the full chest voice is rich in higher harmonics, whereas the thin falsetto voice is composed chiefly of sound-wave energy distribution near the vocal fundamental (the relatively narrow band of wave frequencies that characterizes any particular voice). The subjective impressions of singers during the production of an ascending scale reflect the voluntary techniques of vocal breath control, such as with respiratory support (appoggio). Positioning of the larynx, suitable shaping of the pharyngo-oral resonator (vocal tract), proper placement of the tongue, and the specific tension of the soft palate belong among the learned techniques of register equalization. Definite vibrations may be felt in the thorax, in the area of the hard palate, or above the nose. These subjectively felt resonances depend on bone conduction of the laryngeal sound. Very little has as yet been done regarding the subjective evaluation of voice registers by listening judges. These perceptual factors are still little understood, but it appears that multiple acoustic perceptions operate in voice-register judgment.
It is clear that the vocal registers represent a continuum of laryngeal adjustments in response to different respiratory-mechanical requirements necessary for the production of the individual frequency range. The poles of these adjustments at the opposites of chest voice and male falsetto voice illustrate the chief differences; the midvoice occupies an intermediate position.
Vocal attributes
Vocal frequency
The voice has various attributes; these are chiefly frequency, harmonic structure, and intensity. The immediate result of vocal cord vibration is the fundamental tone of the voice, which determines its pitch. In physical terms, the frequency of vibration as the foremost vocal attribute corresponds to the number of air puffs per second, counted as cycles per second (cps or Hz). This frequency is determined by both stable and variable factors. The stable determinants of the individual voice range depend on the laryngeal dimensions as related to sex, age, and body type. The smaller a larynx, the higher its pitch range. Within this individually fixed range, variables that influence the pitch of a given phonation include: tension of the cord, force of glottal closure indicated by the glottal resistance, and expiratory air pressure. Growing tension of the cricothyroid muscle (as the external vocal cord tensor) increases the vocal pitch, and vice-versa. Increased glottal closure and expiratory effort add to this tensing effect under certain circumstances. For example, 100 vibrations per second produce a low chest tone of a low male voice, while 1,000 are close to the “high C” of a female soprano. An average vocal range normally encompasses two musical octaves (e.g., 100 to 400 vibrations per second); trained singers may reach three or more octaves.
Voice types
Musical practice for centuries has recognized six basic voice types: bass, baritone, and tenor in the male, in contrast to contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano in the female. Sex, therefore, is one of the first determinants of voice type in the two categories. Body type and general physical constitution represent the second determinant of the individual voice type because the laryngeal dimensions vary in fairly strict conformity to whether the body type is large or husky or frail or small. A tall, athletic male usually has a large, spacious larynx. Repeated observations show that short, dainty females tend to have a small and delicately built larynx. The intermediate voice types of the male baritone and the female mezzo-soprano usually represent the corresponding intermediate body types. The art of singing recognizes additional subdivisions. The voice of a basso profundo is extremely low and heavy. The lyric tenor possesses a high, light, and flexible voice. Still higher and lighter is the counter tenor (as used in singing oratorios) who is the male counterpart of the highest female voice found in the extra high and light coloratura soprano. The dramatic voices employed in the Wagnerian operas represent intermediate forms between a male tenor (or high baritone) and a heroically masculine body type. The female dramatic soprano is usually heavily built; her strong mezzo-soprano voice can produce the high soprano tones.
The registers are related to voice types. As a general rule, the low voices possess a large range of chest voice with a much smaller range of head voice. The reverse holds for the high voice types, while baritone and mezzo-soprano assume an intermediate position. In the normal individual and the well-trained singer in particular, the midvoice encompasses one musical octave. As a further rule of thumb, the traditional and optimal transition tones follow a fairly stable and general pattern.The three female voice types usually show the first transition from chest to midvoice at the tones d1, e1, and f1, above middle c1, respectively. The second transition between midvoice and head register in the three female voice types is almost precisely one octave higher. An extra-low contralto voice may prefer to shift the two transitions at slightly lower frequencies, whereas a very high coloratura soprano may prefer the two shifts a semitone (halftone) higher. The two transition tones of the three male voice types are situated almost precisely one octave lower than the respective six female transition tones. It should not be overlooked that the specific features in male voices sound approximately one octave lower than in the female voices of corresponding type. This octave phenomenon stems from the larger dimension of the adult male larynx. (The musical custom of writing the tenor part on the soprano stave in contrast to the correct notation of bass and baritone in the bass clef is a misleading tradition that derives from an old custom of four-part writing, for the tenor always sounds one octave lower than the soprano.)
Vocal ranges
The individual ranges of the singing voice extend from about 80 cycles per second in the low bass to about 1,050 cycles per second in the “high C” of the soprano (all values are approximated). The lowest note of serious musical literature is a low B-flat with 58 cycles per second, used in bars 473, 475, 477, and 632 of the bass voice of the chorus in the fifth movement of Gustave Mahler’s Symphony No. 2 (Resurrection). The highest is a high f3 with almost 1,400 cycles per second sung by the Queen of the Night in Mozart’s Magic Flute. Exceptionally high soprano tones are no longer sung with vocal cord vibration but are produced in the flageolet (or whistle) register simply by whistling through the narrow elliptical slit between the overtensed and motionless vocal cords. When citing the exceptional vocalistic feats of singers from the classical bel canto era, it should not be overlooked that musical pitch has been rising markedly since those days. Concert pitch is presently standardized at 440 cycles per second for the international tuning tone a1. In the last half of the 18th century, the reference tone was at least one semitone lower.
