Umayyad

There is little pottery of merit from the period of the Umayyad caliphate (661–750). At this time the capital was at Damascus, and the chief interest of the pottery lies in its mingled Mediterranean and Middle Eastern derivation; for example, attempts were made to synthesize the formal repetitive style derived from the ancient Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations with naturalistic ornament in the Greco-Roman style. When the ‘Abbāsids overthrew the Umayyads and moved the capital to Baghdad, the European influence on ornament waned. Good use continued to be made of Western techniques, however, particularly of lead glazes that had been employed by Greek and Roman potters since the 3rd century bce.

ʾAbbāsid

An event that had a profound effect on the development of the Middle Eastern pottery was the presentation of a number of T’ang porcelain bowls to the caliph Hārūn ar-Rashīd about 800 ce (see below China: T’ang dynasty). Shortly after this, the first fine pottery was produced in Baghdad and elsewhere in the caliphate. Thus, it seems possible that it was through the example of the Chinese that pottery came to be regarded as an artistic medium instead of a purely utilitarian one. This supposition is borne out by the fact that T’ang wares were in great demand and were imported in large quantities after this date: they and early Islamic imitations, particularly of the dappled T’ang glazes, have been found in various parts of Mesopotamia and as far apart as Egypt and eastern Persia. Unlike their contemporaries in China, however, Islamic potters aimed primarily at richness of colour and decoration rather than beautiful shapes and textures. Nearly all their pottery is glazed and is painted with elegant, rather stylized motifs. Floral and foliate ornaments predominate, although complex geometrical patterns are also characteristic. In theory there was a religious ban, formulated in the Ḥadīth (traditions of the Prophet), on all representations of animal life, which were thought to encourage idolatry. In practice, particularly in Persia, the limitation was often disregarded except in the decoration of mosques. The animal figures on pottery are spirited and rhythmical, while the human ones tend to be stiff, resembling those in contemporary miniatures. Arabic calligraphy was commonly and effectively used as an element of design.

The Islamic potters were responsible for a number of important technical innovations, the most influential of which was the rediscovery of tin glaze in the 9th century ce. Though tin was first used by the Assyrians and according to some authorities was discovered as early as 1100 bce, it had fallen into disuse. The ‘Abbāsid potters first used it in an attempt to imitate the texture of T’ang wares, but soon it became the vehicle for characteristically Middle Eastern decoration. From Mesopotamia and Persia the technique was later taken to Moorish Spain and then to Italy and other parts of Europe, where it was employed for a number of important wares—maiolica, faience, and delft (see below European: to the end of the 18th century).

Like that of tin glazing, the technique of lustre painting was perfected (and probably invented) by Islamic potters. Again, like tin-glazing, it later passed to Muslim Spain but not to the Far East. Lustre on pottery probably was first used to cover entire vessels, thus simulating vessels made of precious metals that were proscribed by sumptuary laws laid down in the Ḥadith, which sought to preserve the earlier simplicity of Muslim life. The metallic pigments employed in lustre painting were probably silver and copper in combination, although an occasional ruby glint suggests that gold may sometimes have been included. After firing, the painting may be dull yellow, golden brown, or olive, tinged with green or red.

Extensive use was made of slip. Wares such as the early Gabrī type of the 11th century and later have a reddish body washed over with white slip. Designs were executed by scratching through the slip to the body beneath (sgraffito). On some later specimens the background was cut away to leave a raised design in white slip or the design was incised through the white slip and then was itself covered with green and brown glazes. The usual motifs are large floral forms, animals, and bold inscriptions. Sgraffito ware became common throughout the Middle East and appears in Egypt and Syria in the 13th century.

Many fragments of Chinese pottery and porcelain have been found at the site of Sāmarrā’, on the Tigris, where the ‘Abbāsids built their summer palaces in the 9th century (see below China: T’ang dynasty). Among the native wares are some made in a buff body decorated in relief under a green glaze; others with monochrome green, white, and yellow glazes or with glazes in imitation of a well-known type of T’ang decoration; and those painted with cobalt blue (perhaps the earliest use of underglaze blue) and further embellished with lustre of various colours.

Sāmānid

To the northeast, beyond the Oxus (modern Amu Darya) River, the Sāmānid dynasty (874–999) became practically independent of the caliphate at Baghdad and fostered a national artistic and literary revival. Sāmānid pottery, which has been found chiefly at Samarkand and Nīshāpūr, differs from the pottery of more westerly regions in technique and style. The best pieces have a reddish body covered with a white, vivid red-brown, or purplish-black slip that was then painted and fired under a lead glaze. The function of the slip, besides providing colour, was to prevent the pigments of the painting from running when the lead glaze was applied. The colours used in painting were the same as those of the slips, with the addition of yellowish green and browns. The designs often consist of the angular Arabic Kūfic characters or stylized birds and floral motifs. The shapes are plain—usually either plates or rather shallow bowls—and the total effect is both bold and elegant.

11th to 15th century

In the 11th century the Seljuq Turks overran Persia and Mesopotamia, and their ascendancy lasted until the advent of the Mongols during the 13th century. As the Seljuqs had no capital, the most flourishing cities during this time were those on the trade routes. In the 12th century very fine pottery was made in the new white body recently developed in Egypt; it was decorated with bold carving, occasional piercing, and translucent glaze. Most of these wares are said to have been found at Rāy near Teheran, where many other beautiful wares have been excavated. Wares with a sandy body and a clear glaze were painted with a golden-brown lustre, often in conjunction with blue. These seem not to have been made after the city was sacked by Genghis Khan in 1220. Especially associated with Rāy are examples of minai painting of uncommon quality. The minai technique, a Persian discovery of the 12th century, was a method of decoration in which colours were painted onto a glazed and fired bowl and then fixed by refiring the bowl at a comparatively low temperature. The advantage of the process was that many colours that would not have withstood the heat of the first firing could now be used. The technique may perhaps have influenced the rare examples of overglaze decoration on late Sung or Yüan wares from Tz’u-chou, although it did not come into common use in China until the early part of the 15th century (see below China: Ming dynasty).

At Rāy the glaze is cream or turquoise, and the minai palette included blue, turquoise, purple, red, green, and white, with the addition of gold leaf. All these colours, except the blue, are mat in appearance, and the style strongly recalls that of Persian manuscript illumination of the 13th century.

Another technique employed at Rāy was the use of silhouette decoration, a kind of sgraffito. The pot was covered with a thick black or blue and black slip, and the design was carved out with a knife. The glazes were applied without colour or stained with copper to yield a brilliant turquoise.

Raqqah was a prosperous trading city until it was sacked by the Mongols in 1259. Most of its pottery, which can be dated between the 9th and 14th centuries, is rougher and the designs bolder than those of Rāy. The body is white, inclining to buff, and is covered with a siliceous glaze. ome of the Raqqah fragments are painted with a brownish lustre. Others have designs in relief, sometimes covered with an opaque turquoise glaze or with a bluish-green translucent glaze. In the 12th and early 13th centuries bold designs were executed in black under pale-blue glazes and, more frequently, in blue and black under a clear glaze. Occasionally the glazes were stained purple with manganese.

Kāshān is chiefly famous for its tiles, in fact the words kāshī or kāshānī (“of Kashan”), are commonly used as synonyms for tile (and have been incorrectly applied to tilework from India). Lustre-painted tiles had been made since at least the 9th century and were used mostly on the walls of mosques and public buildings. Those of Kāshān, particularly in the 13th and 14th centuries, are distinguished by their fine workmanship, brilliance, and intricacy of design. In shape they are square, rectangular, or of interlocking cross or star shapes, each carrying a small part of the total design. The relief inscriptions are frequently picked out with blue pigment.

Also associated with Kāshān are the lakabi (“painted”) wares made in the 12th century. The term, a misnomer, refers to a variation of the sgraffito silhouette technique mentioned above: an incised design was decorated with different coloured glazes (blue, yellow, purple, and green), which were kept apart by intervening threads of clay. Although a number of lakabi wares were also made at Raqqah, the technique was soon abandoned at both places, as the glazes always tended to run out of their compartments during firing, giving a smudged effect.

Both the original site of Solṭānābād and the nature of the wares that may have been made there are extremely uncertain. Principally associated with it are wares decorated with relief molding under a turquoise or dark-blue glaze or painted in black slip under a clear turquoise glaze. They date from the second half of the 13th century onward. Toward the end of the 12th century the glaze material was frequently mixed with the white-burning clay then in use. In the more highly fired specimens the product is not unlike a primitive soft porcelain, and occasional specimens are slightly translucent. These wares probably inspired the attempts to make porcelain at Florence (see below European: to the end of the 18th century). Neither stoneware nor true porcelain was ever made in Persia.

After the Mongol conquests of the 13th century the production of pottery practically ceased, except at Kāshān. A slow revival began about 1295, and, although pottery in the Near and Middle East never again reached its former height, some fine wares were made at Solṭānābād in the 14th century. Good use was made of the rich sombre colours beloved by the Mongols, particularly dark blues, grays, and blacks.