European: to the end of the 18th century
- Key People:
- We’wha
- Maria Martinez
- Pablo Picasso
- Eva Zeisel
- Dave the Potter
- Related Topics:
- whiteware
- Greek pottery
- kintsugi
- terra-cotta
- porcelain
European wares made before the 19th century fall into six main categories: lead-glazed earthenware, tin-glazed earthenware, stoneware, soft porcelain, hard porcelain, and bone china.
Lead-glazed earthenware was made from medieval times onward and owes little to outside influences. The body is generally reddish buff in colour; the glazes are yellow, brown, purplish, or green. The wares are usually vigorous in form but often crudely finished. Lead-glazed wares fell out of favour when tin glaze became widely known toward the end of the 15th century, but they returned to popularity with the advent of Wedgwood’s creamware shortly after the middle of the 18th century. The body of this later lead-glazed earthenware is drab white or cream, the glaze clear and transparent like glass, and the forms precise.
The first important tin-glazed wares came from Italy during the Renaissance, and these colourful examples of the painter’s art exerted a profound influence on later work elsewhere. Manufacture spread rapidly, first to France, then to Germany, Holland, England, and Scandinavia. Under the name of majolica, faience, or delft, it enjoyed immense popularity until the advent of Wedgwood’s creamware, after which the fashion for tin-glazed ware declined rapidly.
Stoneware is first commonly seen in Germany during the 16th century; its manufacture was developed in England during the 18th century, culminating in the unglazed ornamental jaspers and basaltes of Wedgwood.
Two other types of ware, less common than those already discussed, are slipware and lustreware. Slip was applied both as a covering over an earthenware body and in the form of decoration, for example on the sgraffito wares of Italy (which owe a good deal to similar wares from Byzantium) and the dotted and trailed slips of 17th- and 18th-century England. Lustre pigments were used in Spain, where they are the principal decoration on the magnificent series of wares referred to as Hispano-Moresque; in Italy, where they supplement other modes of decoration; and much later, in England—although in the last case they are no longer artistically important.
The manufacture of soft porcelain was essayed in 16th-century Italy under the patronage of Francesco de’ Medici, grand duke of Tuscany. Similar attempts were made elsewhere in Italy about the same time, and manufacture is supposed to have been continued at Pisa and at Candiana, near Padua (Padova). The first production of soft porcelain on a considerable scale did not take place, however, until toward the end of the 17th century in France.
In Saxony about 1675 Ehrenfried Walter von Tschirnhaus started experiments to make porcelain from clay mixed with fusible rock. Almost certainly he had made hard porcelain by the end of the century, but manufacture did not become a practical commercial proposition until the year of his death, in 1708. Experiments were continued by his assistant, an alchemist named Johann Friedrich Böttger, who is sometimes credited with von Tschirnhaus’ discovery. The factory was established at Meissen about 1710, and the first porcelain sales of any consequence took place at the Leipzig Fair in 1713.
Later, at the end of the 18th century, Josiah Spode the Second added bone ash to the hard porcelain formula to make bone china.
Byzantium
In 330 ce Byzantium became the imperial capital of the Roman Empire and was renamed Constantinople. The term Byzantine, however, is applied to the period that ended in 1453, when Constantinople was captured by the Ottoman Turks (and renamed Istanbul).
Since it was not a Christian custom to bury pottery with the dead, few wares survive, and chronology is difficult. Most of the surviving wares fall into two classes: one is a red-bodied type, sometimes with stamped relief decoration under a clear glaze; the other, a sgraffito type with human figures, animals, birds, monograms, foliate designs, the Greek cross, and the like, engraved through a white slip and covered with yellow and green glazes. The latter is the commonest type after the 12th century. Both styles were fairly widespread and have been recovered in fragmentary form from excavations at Istanbul, and in Greece, Cyprus, and on the Crimean Peninsula.
Spain
The earthenware of Spain falls into two classes: lustreware and painted tin glazed ware.
Lustreware
The lustre technique spread to Moorish Spain by way of Egypt, but it is impossible to say exactly when it arrived.
The body of Hispano-Moresque pottery is usually of fairly coarse clay, which has burned to a pinkish buff, covered with a tin glaze containing lead in varying proportions. The lustre, added overglaze, varies in colour from golden to a pale straw, and a coppery lustre almost invariably indicates at least a 17th century date. Many dishes were additionally painted in blue and, less often, with manganese.
Most surviving wares of the early period are dishes of various shapes. Less common are albarellos, waisted drug jars based on a Middle Eastern form. Vases based on the old Iberian Amphora but with two massive wing handles (the Alhambra type) are very rare. The decoration on wares of this early period is predominantly Moorish. Fine specimens of this kind are unlikely to be later than 1525. Subsequently, Spanish artists repeated the Moorish designs, but these often degenerate in their hands; and Arabic and the Kūfic script, frequently used by Moorish potters, becomes meaningless. The early designs are, for the most part, plant forms and arabesques, both the vine leaf and the bryony leaf being used. A little later there are magnificently drawn animals in heraldic form, principally lions and eagles. Still later there are deer and antelope, which may owe something to Persian sources. Dishes with coats of arms of noble families surrounded by vine- and bryony-leaf ornament are unusually fine. Many of them were made in Valencia and the neighbouring village of Manises for Italian families. A feature of many of the dishes is the lustre decoration on the reverse. Although often no more than a series of concentric circles, occasionally there are superb eagles and other animals found on dishes from Valencia that are even finer than the obverse designs.
In the 17th century much lustred pottery was made for the cheaper markets and for export to England. The painting is executed in a lustre pigment of deep coppery hue. While this ware is not important in comparison with the early wares, it is often decorative.
Other tin-glazed ware
Although the influence of Valencian lustre pottery on later Italian majolica is obvious, the wares of Paterna, near Valencia, were hardly less influential in the 14th century. They were decorated in green and manganese, often with motifs taken from Moorish sources; this combination of colours is to be seen in early Italian pottery from Orvieto and elsewhere.
Much tin-glazed pottery of excellent quality was made at Talavera de la Reina, in New Castile, during the 17th and 18th centuries. The palette is characteristic of much Spanish tin-glazed ware; green and manganese play a distinctive part, frequently combined with touches of orange-red and gray. The istoriato style of Urbino (see below Italy) was copied here, and the Italian painter and engraver Antonio Tempesta (1555–1630) provided a source of inspiration for some of the painting. Alcora, in Valencia, made much faience of excellent quality during the 18th century.
Tilework was particularly common in Spain from the earliest period; according to one proverb, only a really poor man had “a house without tiles.” At first tilework was made with a typically Persian technique by which thin slabs of tin-glazed pottery were sawn into pieces and embedded in a kind of mortar (tile mosaic). The cuerda seca method of making tiles followed about 1500: outlines were drawn on the surface in manganese mixed with a greasy substance that prevented the coloured glazes used from mingling. Tiles made by the cuenca technique had deeply impressed patterns the compartments thus formed being filled with coloured glazes. Tiles were also decorated with lustre pigments.
Porcelain
The early porcelain made at Buen Retiro, near Madrid, in the 1760s, had been justly compared to that of Saint-Cloud. The quality of the ware was good, and some skillful figure modelling was done by Giuseppe Gricci, who had previously worked at Capodimonte.
Italy
The pottery of Italy is extremely important not only in itself but for its subsequent influence in other European countries. Indeed, its influence may have spread even farther afield: a few specimens of Ming porcelain have motifs that may have been inspired by it.
There are two well-defined classes of Italian earthenware: majolica, or tin-glazed ware, and pottery decorated in the sgraffito technique.