Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
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- porcelain
The Mongol emperor Shundi (Togon-temür) was defeated in a popular uprising, and the Hongwu emperor, founder of the Ming dynasty, succeeded him in 1368. When the country had recovered from these internecine struggles, pottery art took a new lease of life, though under somewhat changed conditions. The Song wares went out of favour, and the old factories sank into obscurity, while the fame and importance of the great porcelain town of Jingdezhen, near the Boyang Lake in Jiangxi province, overshadowed all the rest. The imperial factory there was rebuilt and reorganized to keep the court supplied with the new porcelain. The staple product of Jingdezhen was the fine white porcelain that made china a household word throughout the world; and as this ware lent itself peculiarly well to painted decoration, the vogue for painted porcelain rapidly replaced the old Song taste for monochromes.
The reign of the Yongle emperor (1402–24) is remarkable for some extremely thin-walled pieces, referred to as eggshell, or “bodiless” (tuotai), ware. Engraved examples are known, and Chinese commentaries refer to specimens decorated in red.
After this early period, Ming wares generally are fairly easily recognizable. Porcelain replaced stoneware as the usual medium, and polychrome decoration became widely employed. The largest single group of Ming porcelain is that painted in blue underglaze. Much of the pigment used was imported from Middle Eastern sources. Supplies of this so called Mohammedan blue (huihui qing), which came from the Kashān district of Persia, were not always obtainable and were interrupted on more than one occasion. The quality of the blue-painted wares, however, remained to a great extent dependent on its use until the end of the 16th century, when methods of refining native cobalt were devised.
The wares lack much of the precision of the porcelain made during the following Qing period (1644–1911/12), when a kind of factory system grew up that divided the work into a large number of repetitive operations. Little trouble was taken to smooth over imperfections of manufacture, and foot rings are often finished summarily. The glaze, too, frequently has minor defects, and articles, such as vases, are sometimes slightly distorted and carelessly finished. The shape of many examples can fairly be described as massive, in spite of the fact that most of them were made for export, and the difficulties of transporting them must have been considerable. None of these factors evinces a lack of skill, especially as the potters were quite capable of technical virtuosity when they wished to display it—some of the most thinly potted of all Chinese porcelain belongs to this period. It seems that the Ming potters disdained the attitude of mind that treated blemishes as important; occasional distortions, in fact, were regarded as lending interest to an object. The Chinese did not carry this aesthetic creed to the same lengths as the Japanese (see Japanese pottery), but the difference seems to be largely one of degree. Ming wares can fairly be described as masculine, in contrast to the more feminine, more precisely finished wares of the later Qing period.
Reign of the Xuande emperor (1425–35)
In this period the arts were particularly fostered and a high level of achievement attained. The blue painting is blackish in colour, with dark spots at intervals where thick blobs of pigment were deposited by the brush—the so-called heaped and piled effect. The motifs are floral and foliate, with the occasional use of fish and waterfowl. Sometimes vessels are bordered by a pattern of conventional rock amid waves—the Isles of Immortality—often referred to as the Rock of Ages pattern. The pattern appears frequently throughout the Ming period and later.
Contemporary Chinese commentaries refer to the use of underglaze copper red—often called sacrificial red for uncertain reasons. To a great extent sacrificial red was abandoned later in the dynasty in favour of overglaze iron red, although it was used again during the reign of the Qing dynasty Kangxi (1662–1722) and Yongzheng (1723–35) emperors and appears in a rather primitive form from some provincial kilns. Both copper red and blue were used as monochromes and, occasionally, together; but since these pigments required a slightly different firing temperature, one or the other is usually deficient in quality.
The use of overglaze colours was rare, and the technique had by no means been fully mastered.
Reign of the Chenghua emperor (1464–87)
Much overglaze decoration can be attributed with a reasonable measure of certainty to the reign of Chenghua, the finest examples being, perhaps, the chicken cups, so called because they are decorated with chickens. Their decoration is outlined in underglaze blue and filled in with soft overglaze colours called “contending colours” (doucai). Chenghua overglaze colours were thin, subdued in colour, and pictorial in effect.
The practice of enamelling directly onto unglazed, or biscuit, porcelain instead of onto a glazed and fired body is sometimes thought to have begun in this reign, though that of the Jiajing emperor (1521–1566/67) is the more likely. Ming specimens are, in any case, extremely rare; most belong to the reign of the Kangxi emperor (1662–1722) in the Qing dynasty.
Reigns of the Hongzhi and Zhengde emperors (1487–1521)
The first use of a coloured overglaze ground can be attributed to the reign of the Hongzhi emperor (1487–1505), when a yellow of variable shade first appears. In the reign of the Zhengde emperor (1505–21) the influence of the Muslim palace eunuchs who supervised the imperial kilns is seen in such blue-and-white motifs as the Mohammedan scroll, which is composed of somewhat formal flowers joined by S-shaped stems, with scroll-like leaves at intervals along them. Mohammedan blue was again available. The earliest versions of this theme, which seems originally to have come from a textile pattern, are the least stiffly drawn. The linear style of painting characteristic of earlier porcelain altered to one in which outlines were filled in with flat ungraduated washes.
Reign of the Jiajing emperor (1521–1566/67)
This reign is notable for a deterioration in the quality of the porcelain body, offset by the use of rich dark blue. Wares painted overglaze, too, were executed in good colours, with well-marked outlines. A characteristic colour, the opaque iron red (fan hong), sometimes called tomato red, was used as a monochrome with gilt traceries over it on bowls that sometimes had interior decoration in underglaze blue. Various wares have decoration in red and green, a palette that became more familiar later. A yellow glaze is found in conjunction with incised decoration (usually a dragon) in green. Very rarely was a green or blue monochrome used.
Reigns of the Longqing and Wanli emperors (1567–1620)
The styles of Jiajing were, to some extent, continued in the following reigns of the Longqing (1567–72) and Wanli (1572–1620) emperors. A palette containing underglaze blue in conjunction with green, yellow, aubergine purple, and iron red (the precursor of the later Qing famille verte palette) was known as “Wanli five-colour” ware (Wanli wucai). The red and green Jiajing decoration was also used, and vast quantities of blue-and-white porcelain were produced for export. The body is quite unlike that used earlier in the dynasty, being thin, hard, crisp, and resonant. It is the commonest of all Ming wares in the West. During the reign of the Wanli emperor, much pierced work (linglong) was done. Pierced objects range from small brush pots to vases with coloured glazes sometimes termed fahua.
The Ming dynasty ended in 1644. The wares of the last three emperors, for the most part, followed styles already established; perhaps an exception can be made for blue-and-white, which shows a number of new departures in both form and decoration. Many of the vases are without a foot ring and stand on a flat, unglazed base. Forms based on European wares were obviously made for export.
Provincial and export wares
Most of the wares hitherto discussed were made in the Jingdezhen area; it remains to consider the other wares of the period. The export of celadons went on, not only to the countries west of China but also to Japan, where they were much esteemed. Most celadons attributable to the Ming period have incised under the glaze floral and foliate decoration of a kind that also appears on blue painted wares.
The fine porcelain of Dehua in Fujian province was first made, perhaps, in the early part of the dynasty. Most of this porcelain was left undecorated and received the name in Europe of blanc de chine. The glaze is exceptionally thick and lustrous, and early examples are often slightly ivory in tone. Overglaze painting is infrequent; virtually all early coloured specimens, figures, or vessels have been decorated in Europe, usually in the Netherlands. Figures especially were produced at the Dehua kilns, with the Buddhist goddess Guanyin being a favourite subject.
The stoneware of Yixing in Jiangsu province was known in the West as Buccaro, or Boccaro, ware and was copied and imitated at Meissen, Germany; at Staffordshire, England; and in the Netherlands by Ary de Milde and others. Its teapots were much valued in 17th-century Europe, where tea was newly introduced. The wares of Yixing are unglazed, the body varying from red to dark brown. The molding is extremely precise and was often sharpened by grinding on a lapidary’s wheel. The body was sometimes polished in the same way.
Most of the Ming stoneware ridge tiles and roof finials were made at kilns near Beijing. Many of them are decorated in green, yellow, turquoise, and aubergine-purple glazes, recalling the wares of the Tang dynasty. A Ming date is exceedingly optimistic for most of them. To this group belong, it is thought, a few large figures that have sometimes been somewhat doubtfully awarded a Tang date.
The provincial tile kilns also manufactured “three-coloured” (sancai) wares, perhaps originally a product of the Cizhou kilns. These were decorated with coloured glazes that were often kept from intermingling by threads of clay (cloisonné technique) or were used in conjunction with the pierced technique (fahua). Others have engraved designs under the glazes. Most existing specimens are large vases, barrel-shaped garden seats, and the like. The best are extremely handsome and imposing, turquoise and dark-blue glazes being particularly effective.