Collective leadership

The new collective leadership was headed by Leonid Brezhnev, party first secretary; Aleksey Kosygin, prime minister; and Nikolay Podgorny, who became president in December 1965. The industrial and agricultural branches of the party apparat were unified; restrictions on the size of household plots and private livestock on collective farms were removed; the party apparat was informed that it would enjoy what it craved most—stability of cadres; and the central ministries reappeared as the regional councils disappeared. At the 23rd Party Congress in March–April 1966 Brezhnev became general secretary of the party—a post last held by Stalin in 1934. Khrushchev’s restrictions on the tenure of office of party officials were abandoned. Brezhnev was displaying his forte, cadres.

Between 1964 and 1968 Brezhnev had to play second fiddle to Aleksey Kosygin, who took the lead in economic reform and foreign policy. Circumstances favoured Brezhnev. The conflict with Czechoslovakia over “socialism with a human face” (see below Foreign policy) was his domain, since relations between ruling parties were the responsibility of the Central Committee secretariat. The turn back to Stalinism undermined Kosygin’s economic reforms, and his star waned. Brezhnev increased his authority and by the early 1970s was first among equals. By the mid-1970s he was the national leader. He pushed Podgorny aside in 1977 and donned the mantle of president. Afterward he went into physical and political decline. It took him longer than Khrushchev to become national leader, but that was because he accumulated power gradually instead of adopting the high-risk strategy of his predecessor.

Ideologically Brezhnev was innovative. At the 22nd Party Congress in 1961 Khrushchev had launched the communist era, promising that by 1980 the foundations of communism would be laid. Brezhnev had to face reality, and he came up with “developed socialism.” This meant that the road to communism was going to be longer than previously expected. It was predicted that the scientific-technical and information technology revolutions would transform the U.S.S.R. In the short term social differentiation would increase, as the state needed to give preference to those who mastered these skills. In the long run, it was promised, everyone would benefit. There was optimism among the intelligentsia and people in the early 1970s, but this soon dissipated. Gorbachev later dismissed the Brezhnev era as one of “stagnation.” This was unfair. During the first half of Brezhnev’s incumbency the U.S.S.R. reached the zenith of its international power and prestige. Détente in the early 1970s was accompanied by the U.S. recognition of nuclear parity. Then it all went wrong. An economic slowdown was accompanied by increased defense spending and the disastrous decision to intervene in Afghanistan in December 1979. By the time of Brezhnev’s death in November 1982 the U.S.S.R. was in headlong decline.

Economic policy

Kosygin’s solution to the problems facing Soviet industry was to increase the independence of the enterprise. However, all activity had to correspond to the five-year and annual plans elaborated by Gosplan. The state monopoly of resource allocation remained. Kosygin reverted to the pre-1957 ministerial system, with each ministry being responsible for ensuring that its enterprises achieved plan targets. The 1968 fright over Czechoslovakia put a blight on economic experimentation, and the centre gained at the expense of the enterprise. Kosygin, who retired in October 1980 and was succeeded as prime minister by the economically illiterate Nikolay Tikhonov, gradually found that the central direction of the economy became more and more difficult to achieve. There were many reforms but all to no avail. The economy had become very complex, but there was no mechanism, in the absence of the market, to coordinate economic activity in the interests of society. A bureaucratic market took over. Bureaucrats and enterprises negotiated the acquisition of inputs and agreed where the final product should go. The goal of every enterprise was to become a monopoly producer. The core of this system was the military-industrial complex, which accounted for the top quarter of output. It had first call on resource allocation.

According to U.S. estimates annual growth over the years 1966–70 and 1976–80 was as follows: gross national product, 5.2 percent and 2.2 percent; industrial growth, 6.3 percent and 2.6 percent; agriculture, 3.7 percent and 0.8 percent; investment, 6 percent and 4.3 percent. The agricultural performance was even worse than these figures imply: over the years 1971–75 there was negative growth annually of 0.6 percent. Population growth during the period 1966–80 averaged 0.9 percent. There were, however, bright spots: in some defense sectors and the space industry the U.S.S.R. led the world or was on a par with the best foreign producers. But the rest of the economy paid a heavy price for this. Despite huge investments in agriculture, with one ruble in three going into agriculture and agriculture-related industry, output declined. The result was large annual imports of grain, paid for in U.S. dollars. This was possible because of the explosion of oil prices in the 1970s, which saw the terms of trade turn in favour of the Soviet Union. There was a great expansion of the oil, gas, and petrochemical industries from the mid-1970s onward, and much foreign technology was imported. Unfortunately for the country, the oil bonanza was wasted, and little use was made of foreign technology. The root of the problem was motivation. Over time fewer and fewer workers were willing to do an honest day’s work. Not subject to international competition, management was lax and resisted innovation. Overstaffing led to labour shortages, and this gave the labour force considerable leverage over management. There was perceptible improvement in living standards until the early 1970s, then stagnation or decline. The black market grew to plug the holes of the planned economy. Along with this went corruption, which had filtered down from the political elites; it eventually became pervasive. Increasing defense expenditure at a time of slowing economic growth led to cuts in investment. Education and medical and social services suffered most. At the end of the Brezhnev era the medical care of the population was a disgrace.

Cultural retrenchment

Brezhnev was instinctively a conservative and had little sympathy for experimentation in art and literature. Since he did not inhabit the intellectual world, he could not grasp what motivated the radicals. He preferred art and literature that lauded the Soviet system. Brezhnev published several tomes himself, but they were always ghostwritten. The Brezhnev leadership quickly revealed its intolerance. In September 1965 the writers Andrey Sinyavsky and Yuly Daniel were arrested and later sentenced to seven years’ and five years’ hard labour, respectively, for publishing works abroad that slandered the Soviet state. Over the following years many other writers and their sympathizers also were arrested, imprisoned, or placed in labour camps. Dissent flourished. After the Six-Day War of 1967 between Israel and the Arab nations, attacks on Israel and Zionism took on an anti-Semitic tone. Cultural repression increased even before the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. Solzhenitsyn’s unpublished manuscripts were seized and his published works withdrawn from circulation. He was expelled from the Union of Soviet Writers in 1969. In 1970 he received the Nobel Prize for Literature; this exacerbated the situation. He declined to collect his prize, because he believed that he would not be allowed to return home. Also in 1970 the liberal editor of the influential monthly Novy Mir, Aleksandr Tvardovsky, had to resign.

The might of the state crushed overt cultural dissent, but it stimulated the development of a counterculture. Networks of like-minded individuals to discuss common interests formed and flourished. Works that could not be published in the U.S.S.R. were circulated in typescript (samizdat) or sent abroad for publication (tamizdat). The arrival of the audiocassette and later the videocassette permitted youth to enjoy the forbidden fruits of Western pop culture. The widespread teaching of foreign languages, especially English, accelerated this process. The state and the KGB probably lost control of culture in the mid-1970s. Unofficial culture became vibrant and dynamic, while official culture atrophied. The educational system was geared to producing mediocre school leavers and graduates who would not challenge the system. This stimulated many of the more able to seek out restricted and forbidden information.

Nationality policy

The Brezhnev leadership quietly pursued the goal of Russian dominance of the country. In 1971 Brezhnev spoke of the emergence of a “new historical community of people, the Soviet people.” Afterward he made it clear that he would brook no opposition to the policy of eliminating differences between nations. Ukraine in 1972–73 felt the weight of this policy. The principal casualty was Pyotr Shelest, the first secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine, who had played a leading role in the renewal of Ukrainian national assertiveness. About 1,000 bureaucrats, officials, and academics were dismissed. Particularly hard hit were ideology, literature, and history. The purge added impetus to the formation of a Ukrainian dissident underground. Here the emphasis was not to escape from Stalinism but to evolve a distinctly Ukrainian culture. Brezhnev lauded the “revolutionary energy, diligence, and deep internationalism of the Great Russian people,” which had earned them the “sincere respect of the peoples” of the U.S.S.R. The expansion of education in non-Russian areas was impressive. By the 1980s the distinctions between the developed and underdeveloped nations of the U.S.S.R., as far as access to education was concerned, had almost disappeared. The Central Asian republics had caught up and in some cases had more students per 10,000 of the population than the Russians. However, as the Muslim population grew, so did the number of young people wishing to enter university at a time when demand for graduates was declining owing to a slowdown in the economy. Economic decline also slowed progress. By the early 1980s, despite the great expansion of tertiary education, no non-Russian republic had trained elites in all walks of life. Culture, education, and the social sciences were adequately covered, but science and technology were seriously underrepresented. As a result, industry, especially in Central Asia, was dominated by Russians and other Europeans.

The problem of language turned out to be the most acrimonious. Russian was vigorously promoted (affecting kindergartens and nurseries for the first time) as the language of learning and intercourse. Russian publications expanded and non-Russian were cut back. No attempt was made to encourage the some 24 million Russians living outside Russia to learn the local language of their area. Only 0.2 percent of these Russians claimed mastery of the local tongue in 1989. This had disastrous consequences for Russians after the collapse of the U.S.S.R. The promotion of Russian aroused increased opposition, especially in the Baltic republics, Ukraine, and Georgia. The emphasis on Russian was clearly linked to the alarming demographic trends, where the net annual increase in the population of the U.S.S.R. was almost entirely Muslim.

Native cadres in Central Asia made headway in all top party and government functions in their republics and by the late 1960s occupied more than half the posts. In the Baltic republics locals dominated top positions. However, in the CPSU Politburo there was a marked preference for Russians. In 1980 among the leading 150 functionaries in the CPSU Central Committee apparat, only 3 were non-Slav. There were also only three non-Slavs among the top 150 military personnel.

Foreign policy

The Brezhnev leadership set out to improve relations with the outside world and to demonstrate that the Soviet Union was a sober, predictable state. However, relations with China declined alarmingly, resulting in armed conflict along the Ussuri River in March 1969 and along the Soviet-Sinkiang border in August. The two sides agreed to negotiate their differences, but the Soviets strengthened their military presence along the Chinese border. They also extended military aid to India, Pakistan, and North Vietnam in an effort to counter Chinese influence there.

In eastern Europe the Warsaw Pact nations (except Romania and East Germany), led by the Soviet Union, intervened in Czechoslovakia on August 20–21, 1968. This was to suppress “socialism with a human face,” a policy, associated with Czechoslovak party leader Alexander Dubček, that aimed to make socialism more democratic and humane. Because it would have permitted debate about socialist priorities, it would have undermined the leading role of the Communist Party; this prospect in turn was perceived as a threat to stability in the region and eventually in the U.S.S.R. itself. The tragic turn of events resulted from much misunderstanding. Brezhnev had accepted Dubček as the new leader of Czechoslovakia’s Communist Party in January 1968, and thereafter Dubček and the reform communists were convinced that they were not acting against Moscow’s interests. Brezhnev and his colleagues were divided on intervention, and this led to a fatal lack of clarity in Soviet policy. Had Moscow unequivocally warned Dubček in early summer that it would intervene militarily if it perceived socialism to be under threat, the whole tragedy might have been averted. This became the Brezhnev Doctrine, and it remained firmly in place until 1989: Moscow decided when socialism was under threat.

The maverick was Romania, which had managed to convince Moscow to remove its troops from the country. Under the leadership of Nicolae Ceauşescu, it became aggressively nationalist. It reoriented its foreign trade away from the Soviet bloc, concluded a trade agreement with the United States in 1964, and expanded contacts with the West. It flattered to deceive. Romania became the most Stalinist state in eastern Europe.

The Soviet Union lost face in the Arab world in 1967 by failing to come to the aid of the Arabs during the Arab-Israeli War. However, it began rearming its clients, especially Egypt, afterward, and its influence expanded. It sought to lessen American influence and to improve its own position.

In western Europe the U.S.S.R. courted France, which had withdrawn its troops from NATO. Trade expanded with the region. Germany’s policy caused some concern. East Germany became more self-assertive and launched a new economic program. Brezhnev came to believe that Ulbricht, the East German leader, might sell out to the West Germans. This was absurd but underlined the lack of trust among communist leaders. Ulbricht was toppled in 1971 and replaced by the unimaginative Erich Honecker.

Relations with the United States were strained after the U.S. bombing of North Vietnam in early 1965 but later improved. The United States, the U.S.S.R., and the United Kingdom signed the Outer Space Treaty, which prohibited putting nuclear weapons in orbit, in January 1967. The Arab-Israeli War again increased tension, but both Moscow and Washington sought to bring the war to an end lest it widen into a direct Soviet-American conflict. The Czechoslovak tragedy did not threaten world peace, because the United States recognized that the U.S.S.R. was acting within its own security region. Moscow sought to ease tension so as to divert resources to civil use. It needed a rapprochement with the West. This policy was enunciated by Brezhnev in 1969 and became known as détente. Although armed struggle was to be excluded under this policy, however, the ideological or class struggle was to continue. The new West German chancellor, Willy Brandt, on his election in 1969 proclaimed his readiness to improve relations with East Germany, Poland, and the Soviet Union. In 1970 West Germany signed treaties with Poland and the U.S.S.R. that recognized the inviolability of existing frontiers.

On May 26, 1972, U.S. President Richard M. Nixon and Brezhnev signed in Moscow the first SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) agreement, which recognized that nuclear war was no longer a feasible option. The following year in Washington, D.C., the two signed an agreement designed to avert nuclear war. The Soviets also removed some of their restrictions on Jewish emigration. The number of Jews leaving the Soviet Union rose steadily until it peaked in 1979.

On August 1, 1975, the heads of 33 European governments and those of the United States and Canada convened at Helsinki to sign the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. The Helsinki Accords recognized as inviolable the postwar frontiers in Europe. In return the Soviet Union and its socialist allies had to concede that human rights in each European state were the legitimate concern of all states. This was seized upon by various dissident groups in the U.S.S.R., especially in Russia and Ukraine, and they established Helsinki monitoring groups. These were remorselessly pursued by the security police and effectively closed down by the early 1980s. Human rights became an issue between the superpowers, and the United States missed no opportunity to put pressure on Moscow. The new Soviet constitution, approved by the U.S.S.R. Supreme Soviet on October 7, 1977, reiterated the rights enshrined in the 1936 Stalin constitution but, significantly, moved the definition of the CPSU as the leading force in Soviet society from Article 126 up to Article 6.

The mid-1970s were a period of considerable success in foreign policy. In 1975 North Vietnam completed its victory over South Vietnam and forced an ignominious U.S. withdrawal. Cambodia and Laos were now firmly in the communist camp. Pro-Soviet regimes took over in Angola, Mozambique, and other former Portuguese colonies. Moscow changed sides in the Horn of Africa and abandoned Somalia for Ethiopia. South Yemen, with the important port of Aden, became a firm Soviet ally. In Afghanistan a bloody coup produced a government that signed a treaty of friendship with Moscow.

All this alarmed Washington. It appeared that Soviet military power was relentlessly spreading all over the world. As a consequence, the SALT II treaty was signed in Vienna in June 1979 by U.S. President Jimmy Carter and Brezhnev.

The Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan in December 1979, fearing that an anti-Soviet regime could seize power there. The Soviets underestimated the tenacity of Muslim resistance and completely misjudged American reaction. President Carter did not submit SALT II for ratification to the U.S. Senate and imposed an embargo on grain exports. A final nail in Brezhnev’s coffin was the election of Ronald Reagan as U.S. president in November 1980. Reagan was determined to increase U.S. defense spending rapidly, partly to strengthen U.S. security but also to force Moscow to follow suit. He was advised that a sharp rise in the Soviet defense budget would have grave consequences for the Soviet economy. This proved to be correct. In 1979, in response to the Soviet deployment of SS-20 intermediate-range ballistic missiles targeted on western Europe, NATO decided to deploy cruise and Pershing II ballistic missiles starting in December 1983. Negotiations with the Soviets to reduce or eliminate deployment, known as START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks), began in Geneva in June 1982.

In retrospect Soviet foreign and security policy from the mid-1970s onward was an unmitigated disaster. The expansion of communist regimes in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Africa caused the West to overreact in the belief that the communist tide had to be stopped. Vietnam was a recalcitrant ally, and Yemen and the African regimes were always engaged in bloody internal strife. Moscow paid a heavy price for its Afghan miscalculation. Their egregious misjudgment of Western resolve over the deployment of cruise and Pershing II missiles revealed how out-of-touch Moscow decision makers, dominated by the Soviet military, had become. The long string of failures so undermined Soviet military confidence that they came to believe that the West was planning a nuclear attack on the U.S.S.R.