- Related Topics:
- angina pectoris
- aneurysm
- embolism
- thrombosis
- heart disease
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Organic disease
In thrombophlebitis there is thrombosis (clot formation) in the veins and a variable amount of inflammatory reaction in the vessel wall. In some instances, the inflammatory reaction is predominant and thrombosis is secondary. In other instances, thrombosis appears before reaction in the vein wall. Embolization—breaking loose of a blood clot—is most likely to occur during this period, though it may occur at any stage of the disease. A form of the disease in which little or no inflammatory reaction or pain develops is called phlebothrombosis.
Thrombophlebitis most frequently involves the veins of the legs. It may occur without apparent cause and tends to recur. At times it occurs as a result of local injury, either from a penetrating wound or from an external blow without a break in the skin. It may occur as a result of severe muscular effort or strain and in the course of infectious diseases, thromboangiitis obliterans, and a wide range of other underlying diseases. Thrombophlebitis may develop in various parts of the body if there is cancer, especially cancer of the pancreas. The presence of varicose veins in the legs causes a tendency to the development of thrombophlebitis. Treatment includes bed rest and anticoagulant therapy.
Pulmonary embolism may occur in bedridden persons as a result of a clot from a thrombophlebitic lesion, or it may occur in an apparently healthy individual. If the embolus is small, it may not have any effect on the systemic circulation. With larger pulmonary emboli, there may be massive bleeding from the lungs and the development of a large area of pulmonary infarction, resulting in sudden death. Getting up and walking soon after an operation or after congestive heart failure is the best method for avoiding pulmonary embolism. Anticoagulant therapy is useful both as prevention and as therapy after the condition has developed. Surgical removal of a massive pulmonary clot has, on rare occasions, been spectacularly successful.
Varicose veins are permanently tortuous (twisted) and enlarged. The medium and large veins, especially in the legs, are most likely to be affected. The condition may occur without obvious cause or as a result of postural changes, occupation, congenital anomaly, or localized causes of increased venous pressure. The veins may be near the surface and easily seen, or they may be hidden and unrecognized. Without complication they rarely cause symptoms, but they may become the site of thrombophlebitis with inflammatory changes and the production of emboli in the peripheral circulation. The veins may rupture on occasion, with bleeding into the surrounding tissues. Varicose veins may occur around the rectum and anus, producing hemorrhoids. If they occur within the scrotal sac in the region of the testes, they are called varicocele. In all forms of varicose veins, the walls of the veins become hardened, and a certain amount of inflammation develops through the years. Dilated veins in the legs may be supported by appropriate elastic-type stockings or bandages, or they may be treated by surgery.
Functional disease
Direct mechanical injury or an infection or other disease process in the neighbouring tissues may produce spasms in the veins (venospasms). Local venospasm is usually of relatively minor significance because of the adequacy of alternate pathways for the blood. If venospasm is widespread, however, involving an entire extremity or the veins in the lungs, it may impair blood flow and therefore be of greater significance.
Diseases of the capillaries
The capillaries are the smallest blood vessels. Through their thin walls oxygen and nutrients pass to the tissue cells, in exchange for carbon dioxide and other products of cellular activity. Despite the small size and thin walls of the capillaries, the blood pressures may be quite high, as, for instance, in the legs of a person in a motionless upright position. In certain disease states there is increased fragility of the capillary wall, with resultant hemorrhages into the tissues. These hemorrhages are referred to as petechiae when small; if large, they may become a large area of discoloration of the skin. Vitamin C deficiency and a variety of blood disorders may be associated with increased capillary fragility. Small petechial hemorrhages occur in bacterial endocarditis and certain other infectious processes. In some instances petechiae are caused by minute emboli; in others they appear to be directly related to capillary fragility itself. Treatment is of the underlying disorder.
The capillaries are freely permeable to water and small molecules but ordinarily are not highly permeable to proteins and other materials. In some pathological situations, such as in certain allergic states (e.g., hives) or because of local injury, as in burns, there may be local areas of permeability, with escape of fluid high in protein into the surrounding tissues. If the disease affects the entire body, a significant amount of plasma (the blood minus its cells) leaks into the nonvascular spaces, with resultant loss in blood volume. Again, treatment is of the underlying disorder.
Mark L. EntmanHemodynamic disorders
Hypertension
Hypertensive heart disease is discussed in the section Acquired heart disease.
Hypotension
Moderate hypotension (low blood pressure) may occur in persons who are weak and enfeebled but more often does not represent a diseased state. Indeed, life insurance figures demonstrate that the life expectancy of people with such a condition is greater than average. Hypotension of a severe degree may develop in heart failure, after hemorrhage, in overwhelming infections, and in a variety of circumstances that lead to the development of the clinical picture of shock. In shock the circulation is inadequate, blood pressure is low, heart rate is rapid, and irreversible tissue damage from insufficient blood supply may occur if the condition is not terminated (see below Physiological shock). Transient hypotension may occur as a normal reaction in certain forms of syncope but is not necessarily associated with organic disease.
Syncope
Syncope is the sudden loss of consciousness associated with a transient disorganization of circulatory function, as differentiated from other brief losses of consciousness associated with abnormal central nervous system activities, as in certain forms of epilepsy.
The most common kind of syncope is ordinary fainting. Some individuals are more susceptible than others. Blood loss, exhaustion, the presence of other illness, and psychological factors may contribute to a tendency to faint. An affected person is usually in the upright position, becomes weak, pale, and sweaty, and may have nausea. The heart rate at this time is usually relatively rapid, but, with the abrupt onset of syncope, the heart rate often falls to below the normal level, and the person collapses as if dead. There is usually a rapid recovery without complications.
Syncope can occur with any cardiac rhythm disturbance that compromises circulation, such as a transient cessation of circulatory activity due to heart block. Other forms of syncope occur as a result of lowered blood pressure upon assumption of an upright position, a condition often called orthostatic hypotension. In some individuals, disease of the autonomic nervous system prevents appropriate postural adjustments for the upright stance. The disorder may be caused by vascular or central nervous system involvement of the autonomic system. In other instances, postural hypotension may occur as a result of inadequate blood volume, of taking various drugs that affect the nervous control of the circulation, and from a wide variety of other causes. Transient hypotension also may result from hypersensitivity of the carotid sinus. Patients with stenotic (narrowed) aortic or mitral valves may experience syncope during exercise; these patients are at high risk for sudden cardiac death.
