The addition of chlorine or chlorine compounds to drinking water is called chlorination. Chlorine compounds may be applied in liquid and solid forms—for instance, liquid sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite in tablet or granular form. However, the direct application of gaseous chlorine from pressurized steel containers is usually the most economical method for disinfecting large volumes of water.

Taste or odour problems are minimized with proper dosages of chlorine at the treatment plant, and a residual concentration can be maintained throughout the distribution system to ensure a safe level at the points of use. Chlorine can combine with certain naturally occurring organic compounds in water to produce chloroform and other potentially harmful by-products (trihalomethanes). The risk of this is small, however, when chlorine is applied after coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration.

The use of chlorine compounds called chloramines (chlorine combined with ammonia) for disinfecting public water supplies has been increasing since the beginning of the 21st century. This disinfection method is often called chloramination. The disinfecting effect of chloramines lasts longer than that of chlorine alone, further protecting water quality throughout the distribution system. Also, chloramines further reduce taste and odour problems and produce lower levels of harmful by-products, compared with the use of chlorine alone.

Ozone

Ozone gas may be used for disinfection of drinking water. However, since ozone is unstable, it cannot be stored and must be produced on-site, making the process more expensive than chlorination. Ozone has the advantage of not causing taste or odour problems; it leaves no residual in the disinfected water. The lack of an ozone residual, however, makes it difficult to monitor its continued effectiveness as water flows through the distribution system.

Ultraviolet radiation

Ultraviolet radiation destroys pathogens, and its use as a disinfecting agent eliminates the need to handle chemicals. It leaves no residual, and it does not cause taste or odour problems. But the high cost of its application makes it a poor competitor with either chlorine or ozone as a disinfectant.

Membrane filtration

Several types of synthetic semipermeable membranes can be used to block the flow of particles and molecules while allowing smaller water molecules to pass through under the effect of hydrostatic pressure. Pressure-driven membrane filtration systems include microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), and reverse osmosis (RO); they differ basically in the pressures used and pore sizes of the membranes. RO systems operate at relatively high pressures and can be used to remove dissolved inorganic compounds from water. (RO is also used for desalination, described below.) Both MF and UF systems operate under lower pressures and are typically used for the removal of particles and microbes. They can provide increased assurances of safe drinking water because the microbial contaminants (viruses, bacteria, and protozoa) can be completely removed by a physical barrier. Low-pressure membrane filtration of public water supplies has increased significantly since the late 1990s because of improvements in membrane manufacturing technology and decreases in cost.

Water softening

Softening is the process of removing the dissolved calcium and magnesium salts that cause hardness in water. It is achieved either by adding chemicals that form insoluble precipitates or by ion exchange. Chemicals used for softening include calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) and sodium carbonate (soda ash). The lime-soda method of water softening must be followed by sedimentation and filtration in order to remove the precipitates. Ion exchange is accomplished by passing the water through columns of a natural or synthetic resin that trades sodium ions for calcium and magnesium ions. Ion-exchange columns must eventually be regenerated by washing with a sodium chloride solution.

Aeration

Aeration is a physical treatment process used for taste and odour control and for removal of dissolved iron and manganese. It consists of spraying water into the air or cascading it downward through stacks of perforated trays. Dissolved gases that cause tastes and odours are transferred from the water to the air. Oxygen from the air, meanwhile, reacts with any iron and manganese in the water, forming a precipitate that is removed by sedimentation and filtration.

Carbon adsorption

An effective method for removing dissolved organic substances that cause tastes, odours, or colours is adsorption by activated carbon. Adsorption is the capacity of a solid particle to attract molecules to its surface. Powdered carbon mixed with water can adsorb and hold many different organic impurities. When the carbon is saturated with impurities, it is cleaned or reactivated by heating to a high temperature in a special furnace.