After the establishment of the Zoharic corpus, no major changes took place in Jewish esoterism until the middle of the 16th century, when a religious center of extreme importance for Judaism, mainly inspired by teachers coming from families expelled from Spain, was established in Safed (in Upper Galilee, Palestine; present-day Ẕefat, Israel). Kabbalistic literary output had been abundant in Spain until the expulsion in 1492 and in Italy and the Middle East during the following two generations, but it was primarily a matter of systematizing or even popularizing the Zohar or of extending the speculation already developed in the 13th century. There were also some attempts at reconciling philosophy and Kabbala.

The expulsion from Spain and the forced conversions to Christianity in both Spain and Portugal were profound tragedies. These events accentuated the existing pessimism caused by the dispersal of the Jews among the nations and intensified messianic expectation. This expectation most likely contributed to the beginnings of the printed transmission of Kabbala; the first two printed editions of the Zohar date from 1558. All these factors, joined with certain internal developments of speculative Kabbala in the 15th century, prepared the ground for the new theosophy inaugurated by the teaching of Isaac ben Solomon Luria (1534–72), who was born in Jerusalem, educated in Egypt, and died in Safed. Although his teaching is traditionally associated with Safed, he spent only the last three years of his life there. Luria wrote very little; his doctrine was transmitted, amplified, and probably somewhat distorted through the works of his disciples, especially Ḥayyim Vital (1543–1620), who wrote ʿEtz ḥayyim (“Tree of Life”), the standard presentation of Lurianic Kabbala.

The theosophy of Luria, whose novelty was proclaimed by its creator, was perfectly realized by the esoterists who held to the Zoharistic Kabbala, which was organized and codified precisely in Safed during the lifetime of Luria by Moses ben Jacob Cordovero (1522–70). Although its details are extremely complex, it is basically an attempt to reconcile divine transcendence with immanence and to solve the problem of evil, which the believer in the divine unity can recognize neither as a power existing independently of God nor as an integral part of him.

The vision of Luria is expressed in a vast mythical construct, which is typologically akin to certain gnostic and Manichaean (3rd-century dualistic) systems but which strives at all costs to avoid dualism. The essential elements of this myth include the withdrawal (tzimtzum) of the divine light, which originally filled all things, in order to make room for the extra-divine; the sinking, as a result of a catastrophic event that occurred during this process, of luminous particles into matter (qelippot, “shells,” a term already used in Kabbala to designate the evil powers); and the consequent need to save these particles and return them to their origin, by means of “repair” or “restoration” (tiqqun). This must be the work of the Jews who not only live in complete conformity to the religious duties imposed on them by tradition but who dedicate themselves, in the framework of a strict asceticism, to a contemplative life founded on mystical prayer and directed meditation (kawwana) on the liturgy, which is supposed to further the harmony (yiḥud, “unification”) of the innumerable attributes within the divine life. The successive reincarnations of the soul, a constant theme of Kabbala that Lurianism developed, are also invested with an important function in the work of “repair.” In short, Lurianism proclaims the absolute requirement of an intense mystical life with an unceasing struggle against the powers of evil. Thus, it presents a myth that symbolizes the world’s origin, fall, and redemption. It also gives meaning to the existence and hopes of the Jews, not merely exhorting them to a patient surrender to God but moving them to a redeeming activism, which is the measure of their sanctity. Such requirements make the ideal of Lurianism possible only for a small elite; ultimately, it is realizable only through the exceptional personage of the “just”—the ideal holy Jew.

Shabbetaianism

For 60 years after the death of Luria, his version of the Kabbala, together with accretions from the other mysticisms of Safed, spread through the Jewish Diaspora and deeply permeated its spiritual life, liturgy, and devotional practices. It emphasized the need for “repair” of a world in which Jewish uneasiness continued to grow; despite certain favorable factors—the relative tolerance of the Ottoman Empire and the peaceful establishment of an important Marrano (Iberian Jewish, or Sephardic) community in Amsterdam—there was no overall solution to the problem of the conversos who had remained in the Iberian Peninsula. The Ashkenazim also experienced a serious crisis: its most prosperous and dynamic section, the Jewish population of Poland, was sorely tried, almost totally ruined, and in large part forced to move back toward the west because of the massacres and the destruction that took place during the Cossack uprising of 1648.

These ideological and historical data may provide the necessary context for understanding the astonishing though short-lived success of Rabbi Shabbetai Tzevi of Smyrna (1626–76), who proclaimed himself messiah in 1665. Although the “messiah” was forcibly converted to Islam in 1666 and ended his life in exile 10 years later, he continued to have faithful followers. A sect was thus born and survived, largely thanks to the activity of Nathan of Gaza (c. 1644–90), an unwearying propagandist who justified the actions of Shabbetai Tzevi, including his final apostasy, with theories based on the Lurian doctrine of “repair.” Tzevi’s actions, according to Nathan, should be understood as the descent of the just into the abyss of the “shells” in order to liberate the captive particles of divine light.

The Shabbetaian crisis lasted nearly a century, and some of its aftereffects lasted even longer. It led to the formation of sects whose members were externally converted to Islam—e.g., the Dönme (Turkish: “Apostates”) of Salonika, whose descendants still live in Turkey—or to Roman Catholicism—e.g., the Polish supporters of Jacob Frank (1726–91), the self-proclaimed messiah and Catholic convert (in Bohemia-Moravia, however, the Frankists outwardly remained Jews). This crisis did not discredit Kabbala, but it did lead Jewish spiritual authorities to monitor and severely curtail its spread and to use censorship and other acts of repression against anyone—even a person of tested piety and recognized knowledge—who was suspected of Shabbetaian sympathies or messianic pretensions.

Modern Hasidism

Although the messianic movement centered around Shabbetai Tzevi produced only disillusionment and could have led to the destruction of Judaism, it answered both the theosophic aspirations of a small number of visionary scholars and the affective need of the Jewish masses that was left unsatisfied by the dry intellectualism of the Talmudists and the economic and social oppression of the ruling classes (both Jewish and non-Jewish). This was the case especially in Poland, which before the partition of the Polish kingdom (1772–95) included Lithuanian, Belarusian, and Ukrainian territories. It was there that the Hasidic movement originated around the middle of the 18th century (it was in no way connected with medieval German Hasidism). While maintaining the Lurian Kabbala as a theoretical basis of speculation, the movement also made adjustments and transformations that continue to the present day.

Modern Hasidism may be regarded as a mass movement having a minimum of organization and relying on itinerant teachers and preachers. According to legend, it was founded by Israel ben Eliezer (c. 1700–60), known as Baʿal Shem Ṭov (“Master of the Good Name”; that is, a possessor—he was not the only one of his kind—of the secret of the ineffable name of God, which bestows an infallible power to heal and perform other miracles). Although relatively untrained according to the norms of the rabbinical Judaism of his time, he was a spiritual person of exceptional quality and was able to win to his ideas not only the common people but also many representatives of the intellectual elite. The mist of legend that surrounds him makes it impossible to reconstruct his entire doctrine, which he probably never systematized. Inspired by the methods of the itinerant preachers whose activity was becoming more intense among eastern European Jews in the 18th century, his teaching took the form of homiletic interpretations of sacred texts based on fables and parables borrowed from daily life and from folklore. Although this method remained constant in Hasidism, it is a mistake to conclude, as did Martin Buber, that the tale and the anecdote are the most authentic expression of the doctrine and spirituality of Hasidism. Indeed, the thought of the Hasidic “rabbis” is best expressed in doctrinal works, most of which took the form of sermons on the weekly sections of the Pentateuch and other liturgical lessons. It is a very diversified thought, for there are as many bodies of doctrine in Hasidism as there were creative spirits during the first three generations of the movement. It is possible nevertheless to point to a few traits that are fundamental and common to Hasidism as a whole.

In theory, Hasidism remains rooted in the Lurianic Kabbala, and nothing essential separates it at this point from the traditional Judaism of eastern Europe. It is unique, however, because it made devequt, “being-with-God,” an object of aspiration and even a constant duty for all Jews and in all circumstances of life, even those seemingly most profane. In other words, it demands a total spiritualization of Jewish existence. This requirement entails a reevaluation, less new in its principle than in its concrete application, of the speculative concepts of Kabbala. Emphasis is placed on the inner life of the believer, and it is on this level that the supercosmic drama (whose stage is in the universe of the sefirot, according to bookish theosophy) is played out. According to several teachers, the same emphasis on inwardness holds for messianic redemption. Hasidism also transforms into social reality a requirement that was part of the Lurian doctrine of “repair,” though it was unfortunately distorted by Shabbetaianism: it puts the inspired leader—an indispensable guide and unquestioned authority endowed with supernatural powers, the “just” (tzaddiq), the “miracle-working rabbi” (Wunder-rebbe)—at the center of the group’s organization and religious life. Hasidism thus produced, wherever it triumphed, an undeniable spiritual renewal. On the other hand, it was plagued by the cult of personality, by competition between “dynasties” of “rabbis,” and by the social and economic consequences of its obstinate insistence on isolating the Hasidic community from the surrounding society.

From its very beginnings, Hasidism encountered strong resistance from official Judaism, which had been sensitized to the anarchism of the Shabbetaians and which at the same time was solicitous toward the prerogatives of the community leaders and rabbis. The behavior of the followers of Hasidism, though irreproachable in its rigorous observance of ritual rules, displayed several traits that were distasteful to its adversaries (besides the unconditional submission to the tzaddiq, who often doubled as the rabbi of the official congregation): desertion of the general communal synagogues, meetings in small conventicles, modifications of the liturgy, excessively formal dress during prayer, and preference given to mystical meditation rather than to the dialectical study of the Talmud, which required serious intellectual concentration. Nevertheless, the conflict between the Hasidim and the “Opponents” (Mitnaggedim) did not finally degenerate into schism; after three generations, a tacit compromise was established between the two tendencies—Hasidic and Mitnaggedic—though awareness of their differences was never erased. The compromise was somewhat to the advantage of Hasidism, but not without a few concessions on its part, notably on the question of education.

The strong organization of the Hasidic groups allowed them to survive the dislocation of eastern European Judaism as a result of the events of World War II, but its vital centers are today in the United States rather than in Palestine, partly for economic reasons and partly because of the more or less reserved, and sometimes hostile, attitude of the Hasidic “rabbis” toward political Zionism and the State of Israel. The best-known of the U.S.-based groups is the very active Lubavitchers (named after Lyubavichi, Russia, seat of a famous school of Hasidism), whose headquarters are in the Crown Heights district of Brooklyn, New York.