philosophy of mind, reflection on the nature of mental phenomena and especially on the relation of the mind to the body and to the rest of the physical world.

Philosophy of mind and empirical psychology

Philosophy is often concerned with the most general questions about the nature of things: What is the nature of beauty? What is it to have genuine knowledge? What makes an action virtuous or an assertion true? Such questions can be asked with respect to many specific domains, with the result that there are whole fields devoted to the philosophy of art (aesthetics), to the philosophy of science, to ethics, to epistemology (the theory of knowledge), and to metaphysics (the study of the ultimate categories of the world). The philosophy of mind is specifically concerned with quite general questions about the nature of mental phenomena: what, for example, is the nature of thought, feeling, perception, consciousness, and sensory experience?

These philosophical questions about the nature of a phenomenon need to be distinguished from similar-sounding questions that tend to be the concern of more purely empirical investigations—such as experimental psychology—which depend crucially on the results of sensory observation. Empirical psychologists are, by and large, concerned with discovering contingent facts about actual people and animals—things that happen to be true, though they could have turned out to be false. For example, they might discover that a certain chemical is released when and only when people are frightened or that a certain region of the brain is activated when and only when people are in pain or think of their fathers. But the philosopher wants to know whether releasing that chemical or having one’s brain activated in that region is essential to being afraid or being in pain or having thoughts of one’s father: would beings lacking that particular chemical or cranial layout be incapable of these experiences? Is it possible for something to have such experiences and to be composed of no “matter” at all—as in the case of ghosts, as many people imagine? In asking these questions, philosophers have in mind not merely the (perhaps) remote possibilities of ghosts or gods or extraterrestrial creatures (whose physical constitutions presumably would be very different from those of humans) but also and especially a possibility that seems to be looming ever larger in contemporary life—the possibility of computers that are capable of thought. Could a computer have a mind? What would it take to create a computer that could have a specific thought, emotion, or experience?

Perhaps a computer could have a mind only if it were made up of the same kinds of neurons and chemicals of which human brains are composed. But this suggestion may seem crudely chauvinistic, rather like saying that a human being can have mental states only if his eyes are a certain colour. On the other hand, surely not just any computing device has a mind. Whether or not in the near future machines will be created that come close to being serious candidates for having mental states, focusing on this increasingly serious possibility is a good way to begin to understand the kinds of questions addressed in the philosophy of mind.

Although philosophical questions tend to focus on what is possible or necessary or essential, as opposed to what simply is, this is not to say that what is—i.e., the contingent findings of empirical science—is not importantly relevant to philosophical speculation about the mind or any other topic. Indeed, many philosophers think that medical research can reveal the essence, or “nature,” of many diseases (for example, that polio involves the active presence of a certain virus) or that chemistry can reveal the nature of many substances (e.g., that water is H₂O). However, unlike the cases of diseases and substances, questions about the nature of thought do not seem to be answerable by empirical research alone. At any rate, no empirical researcher has been able to answer them to the satisfaction of enough people. So the issues fall, at least in part, to philosophy.

One reason that these questions have been so difficult to answer is that there is substantial unclarity, both in common understanding and in theoretical psychology, about how objective the phenomena of the mind can be taken to be. Sensations, for example, seem essentially private and subjective, not open to the kind of public, objective inspection required of the subject matter of serious science. How, after all, would it be possible to find out what someone else’s private thoughts and feelings really are? Each person seems to be in a special “privileged position” with regard to his own thoughts and feelings, a position that no one else could ever occupy.

For many people, this subjectivity is bound up with issues of meaning and significance, as well as with a style of explanation and understanding of human life and action that is both necessary and importantly distinct from the kinds of explanation and understanding characteristic of the natural sciences. To explain the motion of the tides, for example, a physicist might appeal to simple generalizations about the correlation between tidal motion and the Moon’s proximity to the Earth. Or, more deeply, he might appeal to general laws—e.g., those regarding universal gravitation. But in order to explain why someone is writing a novel, it is not enough merely to note that his writing is correlated with other events in his physical environment (e.g., he tends to begin writing at sunrise) or even that it is correlated with certain neurochemical states in his brain. Nor is there any physical “law” about writing behaviour to which a putatively scientific explanation of his writing could appeal. Rather, one needs to understand the person’s reasons for writing, what writing means to him, or what role it plays in his life. Many people have thought that this kind of understanding can be gained only by empathizing with the person—by “putting oneself in his shoes”; others have thought that it requires judging the person according to certain norms of rationality that are not part of natural science. The German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) and others have emphasized the first conception, distinguishing empathic understanding (Verstehen), which they regarded as typical of the human and social sciences, from the kind of scientific explanation (Erklären) that is provided by the natural sciences. The second conception has become increasingly influential in much contemporary analytic philosophy—e.g., in the work of the American philosophers Donald Davidson (1917–2003) and Daniel Dennett.

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