The monasteries

The dissolution of the western Roman Empire during the 5th century, and the consequent dominance of marauding barbarians, threatened the existence of books. It was the church that withstood the assaults and remained as a stable agency to provide the security and interest in tradition without which books can be neither disseminated nor wholly enjoyed. Books found refuge in monasteries. The 6th-century Rule of St. Benedict enjoined monks to read books at certain times. The surrounding social chaos placed upon monasteries the responsibility for making books and creating libraries in order to implement the injunction. A more specific model was set by the historian and grammarian Cassiodorus, who, after serving the Ostrogothic kings in high positions, retired from public life about 540 to found a monastery and establish a scriptorium at Vivarium. The scriptorium was the centre of his interest there. He supervised the copying of books and wrote a guide to learning, the Institutions of Divine and Human Readings. He also composed works that presented certain writers as models, discussed rules for editing, and suggested procedures for establishing a scriptorium and a library.

Following the early examples, monastic houses throughout the Middle Ages characteristically had libraries and scriptoria where monks copied books to add to their collections. Arrangements for this activity varied from place to place. Occasionally the scriptorium was a single large room. Sometimes the copying was done in carrels, individual cells built in the cloister or library. Fittings for the scriptoria were spare; they lacked heat and artificial light. Work was undertaken only during the daylight hours, because fear of fires that might result from artificial light prevented working after dark. The labour (if contemporary complaints can be believed) was hard, for it was often said, “Two fingers hold the pen, but the whole body toils.” The scribe sat at a desk copying in silence a text that was spread before him. The monks did not follow the practice of the Roman commercial scriptorium where a reader dictated a book while several scribes made simultaneous copies of it. Instead, after the scribe’s work was finished it was proofread and titles and notes were inserted. The book might then be given to an illuminator, who supplied any needed illustrations or decorative devices. Finally, the book was bound. This procedure closely resembles that of modern book production, except that in the scriptoria each step in the preparation of a manuscript was repeated for each copy of a work. Book production was slowed to a trickle, and a monastic library with as many as 600 volumes was considered fairly large.

The medieval book was a codex written on vellum or parchment, although by the 15th century paper manuscripts were normal. Many medieval manuscripts attained a high perfection of colour and form and are renowned for their beauty. Such examples as the Book of Kells from Ireland, the Lindisfarne Gospels from England, and the many brilliant “books of hours” made in France are world-renowned as examples of art. The customary book was less splendid, however. Written in a neat book hand that developed into the models from which printing types were designed, the manuscript books of the Middle Ages were the models for the first printed books.

Because the monastic book trade was largely internal, the contents of books are evident from the monastic library catalogs. Generally the catalogs grouped the books in three divisions. First came the Bible and commentaries. Writings of the Church Fathers and contemporary theologians followed. Finally there was a smaller section of worldly books—including at various places some classics, mathematics, medicine, astronomy, law, and historical and philosophical writings. Scriptoria flourished throughout Europe. Books in the Greek language were found only in Byzantine monasteries; in western Europe books were written in Latin. Only with the onset of humanistic scholarship in the 14th century, and the rise of important vernacular writers at about the same time, did books in Greek and various vernacular languages assume any prominence in the catalogs of western European monasteries.

The revival of the secular book trade

For six centuries after Cassiodorus, references to book production outside monasteries are few and hard to interpret. A definite expansion in book production came with the rise of the universities in the 12th century and a revived interest in ancient Greek writings, although these were studied mainly in Latin translation. The universities were located in cities and generated a demand for books. University stationers were established to supply the demand; these were controlled by the universities, which framed regulations about the content and size of books and set prices for sale and for rental. The University of Vercelli in Piedmont, Italy, framed such a regulation in 1228, and many similar acts are recorded for other universities. To satisfy the growing demand, the university stationer, unlike the monastic scriptoria, produced multiple copies of works.

There can be no doubt that books were readily exposed for sale in the 14th century. This is evident in Philobiblon, a book finished in 1345 describing the book-collecting activities of Richard de Bury, bishop of Durham. The book relates how the bishop established good relations with stationers and booksellers in England, France, Germany, and Italy by sending advance payments. Evidence from the same century indicates that the stationers were organized in craft guilds in the same way that other trades were organized. A London record of 1357 granted exemption from jury service to writers of text hand (a compressed, angular hand used for the main text of a book). In 1403 the Stationers’ Company of London appealed to the city for the right to have their own ordinances.

Humanistic and vernacular books

The manuscript books of the 14th and 15th centuries were affected by the rise of humanism and the increased use of the vernacular languages. The emergence of humanism has long stood as a notable example of the capacity of the book to preserve knowledge through centuries of disinterest and neglect. In the first half of the 14th century the intellectually curious began seeking out texts of classical authors. Many texts were found in monastery libraries, and soon considerable enthusiasm for the style of writing and pagan contents of the classical works developed. Library collections throughout western Europe were searched with the aim of recovering and purifying the classical texts. The restored texts, often with humanistic commentaries, became prized books that were collected by whoever could afford them. The Biblioteca Medicea-Laurenziana Library in Florence, the modern Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, and important collections in the Bibliothèque Nationale date from this time period. By 1450 most of the Latin classics had been recovered, and the humanists turned their attention to Greece, even before the fall of Constantinople in 1453 caused the exodus of so many books and scholars from the Eastern capital.

Concurrently with the revived interest in classical literature and language came the production of vernacular books. A vernacular literature had long been growing; and anonymous medieval authors had composed poems and stories of first importance before the 14th century, but their transmission had been largely oral. In the 14th and 15th centuries vernacular books appeared. Among those, the Revelations of Divine Love (or Showings), by Julian (Juliana) of Norwich, is the first English-language book known to have been written by a woman. The anonymous classics were put in writing, and new books by such creative geniuses as Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Chaucer, and Villon appeared.

The expanded literary production found a much larger audience capable of participating in the use and enjoyment of books. Lay princes as well as churchmen promoted learning and were among the patrons of humanism, although the practicing humanists themselves were for the most part ecclesiastics. An increasing number of books were written in the vernacular, and there is evidence that tradesmen and artisans in the cities were learning to read and write. It was partly to them that John Wycliffe directed his English translation of the Bible.

During the 15th century the manuscript book came to resemble its successor, the printed book, in scope. In the wake of the humanists, the content of books expanded to embrace a large sphere of human activity. New authors wrote in the language of the people. Increasing numbers of people enjoyed the advantage of literacy. Books were recognized as objects in trade, and their production and sale were handled by guilds in the same way as other articles of commerce. Paper, which had come to Europe from China by way of Arab traders, was replacing vellum as the material for books. Creation of the printing press wanted only ingenuity and patience.