Livius’ pioneering Odyssey was, to judge from the fragments, primitive, as was the Bellum Punicum of Naevius, important for Virgil because it began with the legendary origins of Carthage in Phoenicia and Rome in Troy. But Ennius’ Annales soon followed. This compound of legendary origins and history was in Latin, in a transplanted metre, and by a poet who had imagination and a realization of the emergent greatness of Rome. In form his work must have been ill-balanced; he almost ignored the First Punic War in consideration of Naevius and became more detailed as he added books about his own times. But his great merit shines out from the fragments—nobility of ethos matched with nobility of language. On receptive spirits, such as Cicero, Lucretius, and Virgil, his influence was profound.

Little is known of the “strong epic” for which Virgil’s friend Varius is renowned, but Virgil’s Aeneid was certainly something new. Recent history would have been too particularized a theme. Instead, Virgil developed Naevius’ version of Aeneas’ pilgrimage from Troy to found Rome. The poem is in part an Odyssey of travel (with an interlude of love) followed by an Iliad of conquest, and in part a symbolic epic of contemporary Roman relevance. Aeneas has Homeric traits but also qualities that look forward to the character of the Roman hero of the future. His fault was to have lingered at Carthage. The command to leave the Carthaginian queen Dido shakes him ruthlessly out of the last great temptation to seek individual happiness. But it is only the vision of Rome’s future greatness, seen when he visits Elysium, that kindles obedient acceptance into imaginative enthusiasm. It was just such a sacrifice of the individual that the Augustan ideal demanded. The second half of the poem represents the fusing in the crucible of war of the civilized graces of Troy with the manly virtues of Italy. The tempering of Roman culture by Italian hardiness was another part of the Augustan ideal. So was a revival of interest in ancient customs and religious observances, which Virgil could appropriately indulge. The verse throughout is superbly varied, musical, and rhetorical in the best sense.

With his Hecale, Callimachus had inaugurated the short, carefully composed hexameter narrative (called epyllion by modern scholars) to replace grand epic. The Hecale had started a convention of insetting an independent story. Catullus inset the story of Ariadne on Naxos into that of the marriage of Peleus and Thetis, and the poem has a mannered, lyrical beauty. But the story of Aristaeus at the end of Virgil’s Georgics, with that of Orpheus and Eurydice inset, shows what heights epyllion could attain.

Ovid’s Metamorphoses is a nexus of some 50 epyllia with shorter episodes. He created a convincing imaginative world with a magical logic of its own. His continuous poem, meandering from the creation of the world to the apotheosis of Julius Caesar, is a great Baroque conception, executed in swift, clear hexameters. Its frequent irony and humour are striking. Thereafter epics proliferated. Statius’ Thebaid and inchoate Achilleid and Valerius’ Argonautica are justly less read now than they were. Lucan’s unfinished Pharsalia has a more interesting subject, namely the struggle between Caesar and Pompey, whom he favours. He left out the gods. His brilliant rhetoric comes close to making the poem a success, but it is too strained and monochromatic.

Didactic poetry

Ennius essayed didactic poetry in his Epicharmus, a work on the nature of the physical universe. Lucretius’ De rerum natura is an account of Epicurus’ atomic theory of matter, its aim being to free men from superstition and the fear of death. Its combination of moral urgency, intellectual force, and precise observation of the physical world makes it one of the summits of classical literature.

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This poem profoundly affected Virgil, but his poetic reaction was delayed for some 17 years; and the Georgics, though deeply influenced by Lucretius, were not truly didactic. Country-bred though he was, Virgil wrote for literary readers like himself, selecting whatever would contribute picturesque detail to his impressionistic picture of rural life. The Georgics portrayed the recently united land of Italy and taught that the idle Golden Age of the fourth Eclogue was a mirage: relentless work, introduced by a paternal Jupiter to sharpen men’s wits, creates “the glory of the divine countryside.” The compensation is the infinite variety of civilized life. Insofar as it had a political intention, it encouraged revival of an agriculture devastated in wars, of the old Italian virtues, and of the idea of Rome’s extending its works over Italy and civilizing the world.

Ovid’s Ars amatoria was comedy or satire in the burlesque guise of didactic, an amusing commentary on the psychology of love. The Fasti was didactic in popularizing the new calendar; but its object was clearly to entertain.