The revival of letters, accompanied by wide-scale copying of classical texts, to which the reign of Charlemagne (768–814) gave fresh impetus, produced some of the most brilliant literary achievements of the Latin Middle Ages. An international elite of scholars, among whom the most distinguished were the Anglo-Saxon Alcuin, the Visigoth Theodulf of Orléans, and the Italians Paulinus of Aquileia and Paul the Deacon, produced a body of lyric, epic, and didactic poetry (both sacred and secular, both religious and political) unmatched in the earlier period. The revival of epic, and the secularization of the sacred hero, occurred in the extant third book of a lost and larger Virgilian epic, anonymously transmitted but known by the title Karolus Magnus et Leo Papa (“Charlemagne and Pope Leo”). Its example was followed in the next generation by Ermoldus Nigellus, writing about the deeds of Louis the Pious, and the tradition of earlier Carolingian authors is extended by two major political poets, Walafrid Strabo and Sedulius Scottus (also the author of an uproarious mock epyllion). In prose the major achievements lie in the fields of biography, with Einhard’s Vita Karoli Magni (c. 830; Life of Charlemagne); of religious controversy, with Theodulf’s Libri Carolini (defenses written at Charlemagne’s request); and of theology, with John Scotus Erigena’s metaphysical masterpiece, the Periphyseon.

The 9th to the 11th century

From the later 9th century on, the liturgy gave rise to two new literary forms: the sequence and the liturgical drama. Notker Balbulus, monk of St. Gall, was not the first to compose sequences, but his Liber hymnorum (“Book of Hymns”), begun about 860, is an integrated collection of texts that spans the whole of the church year in an ordered cycle. Performed between the biblical readings in the mass, each sequence is a free meditation upon scriptural themes, often drawing upon and synthesizing disparate texts. Among later exponents of the genre, Adam of St. Victor was the most distinguished, though the mystical sequences of Hildegard of Bingen exercise a potent appeal. During the same period the enormous expansion of the cult of the Virgin left a notable mark upon hymnody, the early 11th century seeing the composition of Marian hymns, including such ubiquitous texts as “Salve Regina” (“Hail, Queen”) and “Alma Redemptoris Mater” (“Sweet Mother of the Redeemer”).

Notker’s sequences are alive with dramatic possibility, and at St. Gall the practice of troping, or embellishing, liturgical texts also took dramatic form. The Quem quaeritis trope from St. Martial, an abbey at Limoges, was one of the earliest such pieces to demand dramatic performance. From this beginning developed the long tradition of liturgical drama, which, like the sequence, is centred upon the major feasts of the church year.

Two narrative works stand out in this period. The Waltharius epic is set in the years of the invasions of Attila the Hun. The sophistication of its narrative technique contrasts with its Germanic subject matter. The Ruodlieb, a romance written perhaps in about 1050 in a language heavily influenced by vernacular usage, reveals a comparable narrative subtlety. Even in its fragmentary state, the variety and vigour of its episodes are apparent.

The ease with which religious forms such as the sequence are adapted for secular use is nowhere seen better than in the 11th-century compilation known as the Cambridge Songs. The blend of humorous contes, hymnody, and lyric testifies to a diverse taste in the unknown anthologist. Other lyric collections from the next century, such as the Ripoll and Arundel lyrics, may draw upon work of earlier provenance. To the chance survival of individual compilations such as these derives the bulk of knowledge of the secular lyric, which is one of the chief distinctions of the 12th and 13th centuries.

The 12th to the 14th century

The Carmina Burana (“Songs from Bavaria”), the largest and greatest collection of secular lyrics, comes from the Benediktbeuern, a Benedictine monastery in Bavaria. It was put together in the 13th century, though most of the songs are much older, and contains work by many of the finest poets of the age. The contents are divided by subject into moral and satirical verse, love poetry, drinking songs, and liturgical dramas. Walter of Châtillon and Philip the Chancellor are conspicuous among the authors of the satires, the force of their works deriving from learned and allusive use of Scripture. Peter of Blois is found in the section of satirical verse and the section of love poetry. His verse forms achieve a new degree of delicacy and sophistication, and his erotic poetry owes much to a close study of classical poets, particularly Ovid. Yet many of the forms in evidence, the pastourelle (a love debate between a knight and a shepherdess) for example, have no classical antecedent. In the complexity of its argument and profusion of imagery, a poem such as “Dum Diane vitrea” (“While Shining Diane”) far exceeds the imagination of any classical author. Among the drinking songs in the third section are works of the anonymous German “Archpoet” and of Hugh Primas of Orléans, a slightly earlier figure. Under the cover of a pointedly low-life persona, these poets, both prominent men in court society, practiced a robust form of satire in which much of the humour is deflected upon themselves. Grander forms of poetry are not neglected: Walter of Châtillon’s foray into epic, the Alexandreis (written c. 1180), is one of the most distinguished products of the medieval fascination with the legends of Alexander the Great, and it exercised an immense influence on subsequent vernacular literature.

The 12th century was an age of philosophical development, above all in the cathedral schools (as at Chartres) and new universities (as at Paris). Scholars such as Alain of Lille (Alanus de Insulis) and John of Salisbury returned to philosophical problems that had been posed in the days of Boethius. With Roger Bacon, Duns Scotus, and Robert Grosseteste, the first chancellor of Oxford University, a significant English contribution is discernible. Peter Abelard trained at Paris, where he taught John of Salisbury. Of Abelard’s philosophical works, Sic et non (completed c. 1136; “Yes and No”) is the most notable, probing critically the vast bulk of received authority. In three of his most original literary works, the relationship with Héloïse is a prominent feature. The Hymnarius Paraclitensis is a collection of hymns for Héloïse’s convent, where the reading of Scripture is complex and shows the imprint of novel theological thought. The six planctus (“laments”) are meditations on guilt and suffering, set in the mouths of biblical personages, while the correspondence between Abelard and Héloïse reflects themes found in both verse collections. Abelard’s autobiographical work, the Historia calamitatum (written c. 1136; The Story of Abelard’s Adversities), recounts the story of his tragic love affair and its theological consequences.

Liturgical and cultic innovation left its mark upon Latin literature during the 13th and 14th centuries. John of Garland’s compilation of hymns to the Virgin is a late testimony to the force of Marian inspiration. From the early 13th century derive two of the latest sequences to feature in the liturgy in all countries, the “Dies irae” (“The Day of Wrath”) and the “Stabat Mater” (“The Mother Stands”). The cults of the Holy Cross and of the Passion are the impetus to the poetry of two Franciscans, the Italian St. Bonaventura and John Pecham in England. Pecham’s Philomena praevia is an extended lyrical meditation that blends the story of the Redemption with the liturgical course of a single day.

The theology of the 13th century is dominated in bulk and stature by the writings of St. Thomas Aquinas. The culmination of a career centred upon Paris and Rome is the Summa theologiae (written between 1265 and 1272), a systematic exposition of the essentials of faith, grounded in Aristotelian principles. The translation of Aristotle into Latin continued throughout the century. Aquinas’ liturgical works also remained prevalent.