Western painting
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- painting
- Western arts
Western painting, history of Western painting from its beginnings in prehistoric times to the present.
Painting, the execution of forms and shapes on a surface by means of pigment (but see also drawing for discussion of depictions in chalks, inks, pastels, and crayons), has been continuously practiced by humans for some 20,000 years. Together with other activities that may have been ritualistic in origin but have come to be designated as artistic (such as music or dance), painting was one of the earliest ways in which man sought to express his own personality and his emerging understanding of an existence beyond the material world. Unlike music and dance, however, examples of early forms of painting have survived to the present day. The modern eye can derive aesthetic as well as antiquarian satisfaction from the 15,000-year-old cave murals of Lascaux—some examples testify to the considerable powers of draftsmanship of these early artists. And painting, like other arts, exhibits universal qualities that make it easy for viewers of all nations and civilizations to understand and appreciate.
The major extant examples of early painting anywhere in the world are found in western Europe and the Soviet Union. But some 5,000 years ago, the areas in which important paintings were executed shifted to the eastern Mediterranean Sea and neighbouring regions. For the purposes of this article, therefore, Western painting is to be taken as signifying painting not only in Europe but also in regions outside Europe that share a European cultural tradition—the Middle East and Mediterranean Basin and, later, the countries of the New World.
Western painting is in general distinguished by its concentration on the representation of the human figure, whether in the heroic context of antiquity or the religious context of the early Christian and medieval world. The Renaissance extended this tradition through a close examination of the natural world and an investigation of balance, harmony, and perspective in the visible world, linking painting to the developing sciences of anatomy and optics. The first real break from figurative painting came with the growth of landscape painting in the 17th and 18th centuries. The landscape and figurative traditions developed together in the 19th century in an atmosphere that was increasingly concerned with “painterly” qualities of the interaction of light and colour and the expressive qualities of paint handling. In the 20th century these interests contributed to the development of a third major tradition in Western painting, abstract painting, which sought to uncover and express the true nature of paint and painting through action and form.
European Stone Age
Upper Paleolithic
During the Upper Paleolithic Period, just before the final retreat of the glaciers at the end of the last Ice Age (15,000–10,000 bc), much of Europe was peopled by small bands of nomadic hunters preying on the migratory herds of reindeer, cattle, bison, horses, mammoth, and other animals whose bodies provided them with food, clothing, and the raw materials for tools and weapons. These primitive hunters decorated the walls of their caves with large paintings of the animals that were so important for their physical well-being. Most surviving examples of such murals have been found in France and Spain (see Stone Age), but similar figures from caves in the Ural Mountains in the Soviet Union may indicate that the practice was more widespread than has been supposed.
Ever since the first examples of these paintings came to light in the late 19th century, they have excited admiration for their virtuosity and liveliness. The simplest figures are mere outline drawings, but the majority combine this technique with sophisticated shading and colour washes that modulate the surface and suggest the differing textures of pelts, horn, and bone. Volume is indicated by carefully controlled changes in the thickness of brushstrokes, and the astonishingly advanced draftsmanship conveys a considerable sense of movement and life. Most of the animals were originally depicted as individual figures without narrative import, and what appear to the modern observer to be sophisticated groupings of figures are, in reality, the end result of a long additive process.
The lack of a clear narrative element in these paintings has caused problems in their interpretation. Man is seldom portrayed, and depictions of human figures unambiguously interacting with the numerous animal figures are rare. One of the few exceptions to this rule is a scene at Lascaux in southern France depicting a bison butting a falling male figure. The “Sorcerer” at Les Trois Frères, also in southern France, is more characteristic. Although he is draped in the skin of an animal and seems to be engaged in stalking or a ritual dance, his complete isolation from any other figure leaves his exact significance unclear. It is also interesting that, in contrast to the obvious care taken in the detailed portrayal of animals, the few human figures are usually executed in a perfunctory and schematized fashion. Sometimes the only hint of man is provided by depictions of darts wounding or killing a few of the animal figures. These projectiles have been interpreted as exercises in sympathetic magic designed to induce success in a future hunt. Conversely, they might just as easily commemorate past kills. But certain features suggest that such simple explanations do not tell the whole story: first, such portrayals are rare (in inverse proportion to the amount of scholarly discussion they have engendered) and, second, the beasts that are shown as wounded—indeed the vast majority of the species depicted on the cave walls—were not significant items in the diet of the cave artists. Contemporary habitation deposits indicate that most of the meat consumed came from reindeer, and reindeer appear almost as infrequently as man himself among the surviving paintings. One fact is clear: individual initiative seems paramount, both in the execution of the animal figures and in the recording of the activities of the isolated humans. Any hint of social interaction is absent, and it has been assumed that society as such existed at a relatively low level. Nature provided the impetus for change, and in the art of the following period man finally emerged as part of a community.
