For certain young American sculptors, however, work such as Caro’s seemed to embody limiting “European” aesthetic precepts. While accepting that the use of industrial materials and constructive principles provided the technical paradigm for advanced sculpture, Donald Judd and Robert Morris took their lead from painters such as Frank Stella and Ad Reinhardt in producing what they described as “nonrelational” sculptural objects. Rather than relying on the internal balancing of shapes or parts, as in the works of Caro (or classic European abstraction more generally), such works were based on principles of self-evident geometrical order or repetition. In many ways Stella had been the first artist to explore such principles in his so-called Black Paintings of the late 1950s, in which the internal structure of a canvas was determined by the shape of the external framing edge. However, between about 1963 and 1967 it was Judd, Morris, and such other sculptors as Carl Andre and Dan Flavin—collectively dubbed “Minimalists”—who most fully developed the ethos of the structurally simplified and self-evident art object. Their works often made use of materials such as cold-rolled steel, Plexiglas, or aluminum, declaring themselves very much part of an industrial era. Indeed, Judd often had his objects industrially fabricated according to his specifications.

The factory-made, streamlined look of much Minimalist sculpture gives it a severe, rationalistic aura, but in the hands of Sol LeWitt, that apparent emphasis on logicality could flip surprisingly into irrationality. In a work such as Variations of Incomplete Cubes (1974), LeWitt deployed a modular structure of 122 units to demonstrate all the permutations produced by removing the various sides of a cube. A pseudo-mathematical demonstration ended up with its own unusual visual autonomy. Such a work should warn the viewer about too quickly associating Minimalism’s emphasis on geometry with rational ends.

“Anti-Form” and post-Minimalist sculpture in the United States and Britain: 1967–2000

The most influential opponent of Minimalism was the aforementioned critic Michael Fried, who famously attacked Minimalist sculptures for their inherent “theatricality” in a key essay titled “Art and Objecthood” (1967). By theatricality he referred to the way in which Minimalist works seemed to rely as much on their contexts for their effects as on their essential aesthetic attributes. (Robert Morris’s important installation at New York City’s Green Gallery of 1964, for instance, was an environmentally conceived piece in which the artist’s severely geometrical sculptures were positioned in provocative ways around the gallery space.) In many ways Fried’s attack marked a turning point in postwar art. Fundamentally, Fried was attempting to preserve Modernist values. He sensed, quite correctly, that the Minimalist emphasis on theatricality intimated a changed post-Modernist sensibility.

Minimalism was also criticized from within when Morris published a short essay in 1968 titled “Anti-Form.” In it he called for a movement away from predetermined geometrical structures and toward sculpture that took its structure from the behaviour of materials and from rudimentary processes, often of a random nature. The main exponent of this new, process-oriented sculpture was Richard Serra, who, in a piece titled Casting (1968–69), threw molten lead into the angled junction between wall and floor at the warehouse of Castelli’s New York City gallery, pulling the resultant castings away when they hardened and repeating the action to create a series of “waves.”

There was a strong “masculine” ethos to some of Serra’s works, and the later 1960s were to see the emergence of a number of women artists who reacted in different ways toward Minimalism’s masculinist aura. Agnes Martin’s paintings, for instance, have a decidedly mystical quality when placed alongside those of male contemporaries. The biggest shifts in sculptural language, however, came in the work of Eva Hesse. In sculptures such as Accession II (1968), she threaded thousands of pieces of plastic tubing through a perforated Minimalist cube, thereby providing the object with an interior “life.” Hesse would continue to explore bodily associations in other sculptures, but some of her most significant innovations came in exploring new materials, such as liquid latex. This material had been exploited somewhat earlier by the French-born artist Louise Bourgeois to create visceral biomorphic sculptures. However, Bourgeois’s work was not rediscovered fully until the 1980s and ’90s, when she was seen to have preserved metaphoric content in sculpture during a lengthy period when purely formal considerations had seemingly held sway.

The most decisive shift toward metaphor in post-Minimalist sculpture can, however, be discerned in developments in Britain from the late 1960s onward. Reacting against the Modernist influence of Caro, figures such as Barry Flanagan, Bruce McLean, and Richard Long produced humorous informal works in which the context—which in Long’s case was often a landscape far removed from the gallery setting—was given considerable emphasis. It was not until the end of the 1970s—in an exhibition held in London and Bristol titled Objects and Sculptures—that the sculptural object as such was imbued with new life. A new generation of sculptors, including Tony Cragg, Anish Kapoor, Antony Gormley, and Richard Deacon, deployed lessons learned from Minimalism to produce a heterogeneous range of objects rich in metaphor and human associations. In many ways the contemporary sculptor Rachel Whiteread—who enjoyed considerable critical success in the1990s—most decisively demonstrated how Minimalist principles were transmuted in recent British sculpture. Her remarkable House of 1993 (destroyed 1994) was cast from the inside of an abandoned house in Bow, London. While possessing the stark appearance of a Minimalist monolith, the work poignantly spoke of human absence.

Germany and Italy: Joseph Beuys and Arte Povera

The above account of Minimalism and its legacies assumes the central importance of American aesthetics in the 1960s. Certain European tendencies in sculpture can, however, be seen as implicitly opposed to the dominance of American artistic values.

Western Germany, understandably, took time to recover its cultural life after the devastation of World War II. A key figure in this enterprise was Joseph Beuys, who was based in Düsseldorf. Beuys developed a rather convoluted process-orientated conception of sculpture based on a deeply held set of beliefs. Opposed to the materialism of consumer culture, he was fascinated by arcane belief systems, ranging from alchemy to Rudolf Steiner’s anthroposophy. Beuys’s sculptures, which often made use of unusual materials such as wax and felt, are freighted with symbolic meanings. His Fat Chair of 1964, in which a potentially unstable mass of fat is banked up on a fixed geometric base, implying the possibility of dramatic change should the heating conditions change, is perhaps his most famous single sculptural object. Very often, though, his sculptures functioned as “props” in the elaborate pseudoritualistic performances for which Beuys, like his French contemporary Yves Klein, became well known.

One such performance was I Like America and America Likes Me (1974), a three-day “dialogue” between Beuys and a live coyote that took place behind a grilled partition in René Block’s New York City gallery. Beuys saw this encounter as symbolically facing up to the genocide perpetrated by white America on its indigenous peoples (Coyote was a significant spirit being for many Native Americans), and, as such, the piece also criticized American cultural values. All in all, Beuys’s metaphysically loaded works represented a significant alternative to the formal concerns of American Minimalism, and he can be seen as a central point of reference for post-Minimalist figures such as Hesse, whose use of materials owed much to an early encounter with his work.

Beuys was also an important precedent for Arte Povera (“Poor Art”), an Italian tendency of the mid- to late1960s, which was christened and vigorously promoted by the critic Germano Celant and similarly functioned in counterpoint to Minimalism. The sculptors involved in that movement—Jannis Kounellis, Michelangelo Pistoletto, Luciano Fabro, Giovanni Anselmo, and Mario Merz preeminently—were united in attempting to shake off their nation’s tradition-bound view of aesthetics, but they were also deeply engaged with social issues and with reinstalling a metaphysical content into art. Like Beuys, they often made use of unusual, organically based materials. In Pistoletto’s Venus of the Rags (1967), for instance, he provocatively forced a classical statue into a confrontation with a pile of rags. By 1968 the artists involved in Arte Povera can be seen as reflecting the turbulent political state of Italy. Students, in line with those in France, were taking to the streets, demanding change. An artist such as Merz, who specialized in creating “igloos” consisting of hemispherical metal-ribbed constructions covered with materials such as branches or slate, reflected a widespread turn among disaffected young people toward nomadic lifestyles. Art, it was clear, could no longer be confined to the gallery, nor could it remain politically neutral. The mood in the late 1960s was one of radical upheaval.