In the Low Countries there emerged early in the 16th century a group of painters misleadingly lumped together as the Antwerp Mannerists. Their exaggerated and fanciful compositions descend in great part from the decorative excesses of late Gothic art, generally with some Italianate details probably transmitted by architects’ and goldsmiths’ pattern books.

The Flemish painter Jan Gossaert, called Mabuse, visited Rome in 1508. At first he continued his ornate late Gothic style, but by 1514 he began to adopt the great innovations occurring in Italian painting. His mythological paintings, such as the “Neptune and Amphitrite” (Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin) of 1516, indicate that he was able to understand only the superficialities and not the motivation and terribilità of Michelangelo’s nudes. Bernard van Orley remained in Brussels and learned of Italy through Raphael’s cartoons, which were sent to Brussels to be woven into tapestries. Before the end of the century, painters such as Jan van Scorel, Maerten van Heemskerck, and Sir Anthony More (a Utrecht-born portraitist knighted by Queen Mary I of England) were absorbing Italian influences. Van Scorel demonstrated a specifically Venetian influence, yet all three created an art that was distinctly their own. Joachim Patinir’s depiction of the world around him, particularly of landscape, parallels Italian developments in northern terms and greatly influenced Pieter Bruegel the Elder.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder visited Italy in 1551–53 but was more influenced by the Italian and particularly Alpine landscape than by Italian painting. His two-dimensional sources are to be found rather in the popular prints of the time, the landscapes of Patinir, and the fantasies of Bosch. He was also a great observer of peasant life. Bruegel spent his adult life in the company of learned humanists, yet he showed no real interest in classical mythological subjects or antiquity. His paintings illustrating Low Countries’ proverbs, children’s games, or “The Fight Between Carnival and Lent” (1559; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) reveal an interest in popular themes and common life rather than in the pedantic Romanizing compositions of some of his contemporaries. This choice of subject matter, latent from the early 15th century in the Low Countries, was given new dimensions by Bruegel. His series of depictions of the months is at once a revival of the labours of the months found in the portal sculptures of Gothic cathedrals and medieval books of hours and at the same time a new treatment of rural landscape and the peasants who work the land. His “Harvesters” (1565; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City) displays a remarkable sensitivity to colour and pattern. The intense golden yellow of the ripe wheat sets up a bold pattern across the lower half of the picture and contrasts with the cool greens and blues of the limitless plain stretching off into the distance. Some figures move across a lane cut through the wheat, while others cut into what seems a solid space. The sleeping peasants resting after their noon meal are disposed in patterns and poses that make one feel the heat and calm of the summer’s day. This sympathetic view of peasant life, with its bold geometric patterns, runs throughout the series of the months and recurs in “The Wedding Dance” (1566; Detroit Institute of Arts) and “Peasant Dance” and “Peasant Wedding” (both in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna).

Bruegel brought to an end the 16th century in the north and prepared the way for the Baroque. His sons and grandsons were important painters who helped to train some of the leading artists of the 17th century in the Low Countries. It was the elder Bruegel, however, who made landscape and peasant life an accepted subject for painting in the Renaissance.

The Mannerist style was not comprehended as soon in the 16th century in the Low Countries as it had been in France or Spain. With the notable exception of Frans Floris, it was not until the generation of artists born during the middle years of the century that Mannerism was fully assimilated. This generation of Flemish and Dutch Mannerists was influenced chiefly by the Italian Mannerists of the second half of the century: Frederik Sustris studied with Vasari; Hendrik Goltzius was an associate of Taddeo Zuccari, Federico’s older brother; Johann von Aachen remained in Rome between 1574 and 1588; and Bartholomaeus Spranger collaborated with Federico Zuccari. Haarlem and Amsterdam became the early centres for northern Mannerism. Spranger’s style was diffused throughout Europe by the engravings of his colleague Goltzius. Finally, as a late flowering of international Mannerism, Carel van Mander founded a Vasarian academy in Haarlem, in 1604 publishing his biographies of Netherlandish artists in direct emulation of Vasari.

Bohemia

By far the most ambitious patron of Mannerist art in Europe north of Italy was the Holy Roman emperor Rudolf II, who in the late 1570s established his court at Prague. Between the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th, Rudolf employed architects, sculptors, and painters to create impressive artistic works for his court, much as Cosimo de’ Medici had done in Florence. Spranger’s “Allegory of Rudolf II” indicates the quality of Rudolf’s court art and its clear Mannerist sympathies—sensually graceful figures clad in the dress of classical antiquity and a cultivated facility in composition and execution.