Quintus Ennius

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Quintus Ennius

Roman author

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Born:: 239 bc, Rudiae, southern Italy

Died:: 169 bc

Notable Works:: “Annales”; “Iphigenia at Aulis”; “Medea”; “Satires”

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Quintus Ennius (born 239 bc, Rudiae, southern Italy—died 169 bc) was an epic poet, dramatist, and satirist, the most influential of the early Latin poets, rightly called the founder of Roman literature. His epic Annales, a narrative poem telling the story of Rome from the wanderings of Aeneas to the poet’s own day, was the national epic until it was eclipsed by Virgil’s Aeneid.

Because of the place of his birth, Ennius was at home in three languages and had, as he put it, “three hearts”: Oscan, his native tongue; Greek, in which he was educated; and Latin, the language of the army with which he served in the Second Punic War. The elder Cato took him to Rome (204), where he earned a meagre living as a teacher and by adapting Greek plays, but he was on familiar terms with many of the leading men in Rome, among them the elder Scipio. His patron was Marcus Fulvius Nobilior, whom he accompanied on his campaign in Aetolia and whose son Quintus obtained Roman citizenship for Ennius (184 bc). Nothing else of significance is known about his life.

Only 600 lines survive of Ennius’s greatest work, his epic on Roman history, Annales. The poet introduced himself as a reincarnated Homer, addressed the Greek Muses, and composed in dactylic hexameter the metre of Homer. Ennius varied his accounts of military campaigns with autobiography, literary and grammatic erudition, and philosophical speculation.

4:043 Dickinson, Emily: A Life of Letters, This is my letter to the world/That never wrote to me; I'll tell you how the Sun Rose/A Ribbon at a time; Hope is the thing with feathers/That perches in the soul

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Ennius excelled in tragedy. Titles survive of 20 tragedies adapted from the Greek, mostly Euripides (e.g., Iphigenia at Aulis, Medea, Telephus, and Thyestes). About 420 lines remain, indicating remarkable freedom from the originals, great skill in adapting the native Latin metres to the Greek framework, heightening the rhetorical element and the pathetic appeal (a feature of Euripides that he greatly admired) through skillful use of alliteration and assonance. His plays on Roman themes were Sabinae (“Sabine Women”) and, if they really were plays, Ambracia (on the capture of that city in Aetolia by Fulvius) and Scipio.

In the Saturae (Satires) Ennius developed the only literary genre that Rome could call its own. Four books in a variety of metres on diverse subjects, they were mostly concerned with practical wisdom, often driving home a lesson with the help of a fable. More philosophical was a work on the theological and physical theories of Epicharmus, the Sicilian poet and philosopher. Euhemerus, based on the ideas of Euhemerus of Messene, argued that the Olympian gods were originally great men honoured after death in human memory. Some epigrams, on himself and Scipio Africanus, are the first Latin elegiac couplets.

Ennius, who is credited also with the introduction of the double spelling of long consonants and the invention of Latin shorthand, was a man of wide interests and was conversant with the intellectual and literary movements of the Hellenistic world. He created and did not fall far short of perfecting a mode of poetic expression that reached its greatest beauty in Virgil and was to remain preeminent in Latin literature.

Cicero and others admired the work of Ennius throughout the republican period. Critical remarks appeared in Horace, becoming more severe in Seneca and Martial. The Neronian epic poet Lucan studied Ennius, and he was still read in the 2nd century ad; by the 5th century ad, copies of Ennius were rare.

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Latin literature

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Latin literature

Written by Richard H.A. Jenkyns, Frederic James Edward Raby•All

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Key People:: St. Thomas Aquinas; Erasmus; Horace; Cicero; Virgil

Related Topics:: fabula palliata; blanditia; facundia; Ciceronian rhetoric; fabula togata

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Latin literature, the body of writings in Latin, primarily produced during the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, when Latin was a spoken language. When Rome fell, Latin remained the literary language of the Western medieval world until it was superseded by the Romance languages it had generated and by other modern languages. After the Renaissance the writing of Latin was increasingly confined to the narrow limits of certain ecclesiastical and academic publications. This article focuses primarily on ancient Latin literature. It does, however, provide a broad overview of the literary works produced in Latin by European writers during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.

Ancient Latin literature

Literature in Latin began as translation from the Greek, a fact that conditioned its development. Latin authors used earlier writers as sources of stock themes and motifs, at their best using their relationship to tradition to produce a new species of originality. They were more distinguished as verbal artists than as thinkers; the finest of them have a superb command of concrete detail and vivid illustration. Their noblest ideal was humanitas, a blend of culture and kindliness, approximating the quality of being “civilized.”

Little need be said of the preliterary period. Hellenistic influence came from the south, Etrusco-Hellenic from the north. Improvised farce, with stock characters in masks, may have been a native invention from the Campania region (the countryside of modern Naples). The historian Livy traced quasi-dramatic satura (medley) to the Etruscans. The statesman-writer Cato and the scholar Varro said that in former times the praises of heroes were sung after feasts, sometimes to the accompaniment of the flute, which was perhaps an Etruscan custom. If they existed, these carmina convivalia, or festal songs, would be behind some of the legends that came down to Livy. There were also the rude verses improvised at harvest festivals and weddings and liturgical formulas, whose scanty remains show alliteration and assonance. The nearest approach to literature must have been in public and private records and in recorded speeches.

Stylistic periods

Ancient Latin literature may be divided into four periods: early writers, to 70 bc; Golden Age, 70 bc–ad 18; Silver Age, ad 18–133; and later writers.

Early writers

The ground for Roman literature was prepared by an influx from the early 3rd century bc onward of Greek slaves, some of whom were put to tutoring young Roman nobles. Among them was Livius Andronicus, who was later freed and who is considered to be the first Latin writer. In 240 bc, to celebrate Rome’s victory over Carthage, he composed a genuine drama adapted from the Greek. His success established a tradition of performing such plays alongside the cruder native entertainments. He also made a translation of the Odyssey. For his plays Livius adapted the Greek metres to suit the Latin tongue; but for his Odyssey he retained a traditional Italian measure, as did Gnaeus Naevius for his epic on the First Punic War against Carthage. Scholars are uncertain as to how much this metre depended on quantity or stress. A half-Greek Calabrian called Ennius adopted and Latinized the Greek hexameter for his epic Annales, thus further acquainting Rome with the Hellenistic world. Unfortunately his work survives only in fragments.

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The Greek character thus imposed on literature made it more a preserve of the educated elite. In Rome, coteries emerged such as that formed around the Roman consul and general Scipio Aemilianus. This circle included the statesman-orator Gaius Laelius, the Greek Stoic philosopher Panaetius, the Greek historian Polybius, the satirist Lucilius, and an African-born slave of genius, the comic playwright Terence. Soon after Rome absorbed Greece as a Roman province, Greek became a second language to educated Romans. Early in the 1st century bc, however, Latin declamation established itself, and, borrowing from Greek, it attained polish and artistry.

Plautus, the leading poet of comedy, is one of the chief sources for colloquial Latin. Ennius sought to heighten epic and tragic diction, and from his time onward, with a few exceptions, literary language became ever more divorced from that of the people, until the 2nd century ad.

Golden Age, 70 bc–ad 18

The Golden Age of Latin literature spanned the last years of the republic and the virtual establishment of the Roman Empire under the reign of Augustus (27 bc–ad 14). The first part of this period, from 70 to 42 bc, is justly called the Ciceronian. It produced writers of distinction, most of them also men of action, among whom Julius Caesar stands out. The most prolific was Varro, “most learned of the Romans,” but it was Cicero, a statesman, orator, poet, critic, and philosopher, who developed the Latin language to express abstract and complicated thought with clarity. Subsequently, prose style was either a reaction against, or a return to, Cicero’s. As a poet, although uninspired, he was technically skillful. He edited the De rerum natura of the philosophical poet Lucretius. Like Lucretius, he admired Ennius and the old Roman poetry and, though apparently interested in Hellenistic work, spoke ironically of its extreme champions, the neōteroi (“newer poets”).

After the destruction of Carthage and Corinth in 146 bc, prosperity and external security had allowed the cultivation of a literature of self-expression and entertainment. In this climate flourished the neōteroi, largely non-Roman Italians from the north, who introduced the mentality of “art for art’s sake.” None is known at first hand except Catullus, who was from Verona. These poets reacted against the grandiose—the Ennian tradition of “gravity”—and their complicated allusive poetry consciously emulated the Callimacheans of 3rd-century Alexandria. The Neoteric influence persisted into the next generation through Cornelius Gallus to Virgil.

Virgil, born near Mantua and schooled at Cremona and Milan, chose Theocritus as his first model. The self-consciously beautiful cadences of the Eclogues depict shepherds living in a landscape half real, half fantastic; these allusive poems hover between the actual and the artificial. They are shot through with topical allusions, and in the fourth he already appears as a national prophet. Virgil was drawn into the circle being formed by Maecenas, Augustus’ chief minister. In 38 bc he and Varius introduced the young poet Horace to Maecenas; and by the final victory of Augustus in 30 bc, the circle was consolidated.

With the reign of Augustus began the second phase of the Golden Age, known as the Augustan Age. It gave encouragement to the classical notion that a writer should not so much try to say new things as to say old things better. The rhetorical figures of thought and speech were mastered until they became instinctive. Alliteration and onomatopoeia (accommodation of sound and rhythm to sense), previously overdone by the Ennians and therefore eschewed by the neōteroi, were now used effectively with due discretion. Perfection of form characterizes the odes of Horace; elegy, too, became more polished.

The decade of the first impetus of Augustanism, 29–19 bc, saw the publication of Virgil’s Georgics and the composition of the whole Aeneid by his death in 19 bc; Horace’s Odes, books I–III, and Epistles, book I; in elegy, books I–III of Propertius (also of Maecenas’ circle) and books I–II of Tibullus, with others from the circle of Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, and doubtless the first recitations by a still younger member of his circle, Ovid. About 28 or 27 bc Livy began his monumental history.

Maecenas’ circle was not a propaganda bureau; his talent for tactful pressure guided his poets toward praise of Augustus and the regime without excessively cramping their freedom. Propertius, when admitted to the circle, was simply a youth with an anti-Caesarian background who had gained favour with passionate love elegies. He and Horace quarreled, and after Virgil’s death the group broke up. Would-be poets now abounded, such as Horace’s protégés, who occur in the Epistles; Ovid’s friends, whom he remembers wistfully in exile; and Manilius, whom no one mentions at all. Poems were recited in literary circles and in public, hence the importance attached to euphony, smoothness, and artistic structure. They thus became known piecemeal and might be improved by friendly suggestions. When finally they were assembled in books, great care was taken over arrangement, which was artistic or significant (but not chronological).

Meanwhile, in prose the Ciceronian climax had been followed by a reaction led by Sallust. In 43 bc he began to publish a series of historical works in a terse, epigrammatic style studded with archaisms and avoiding the copiousness of Cicero. Later, eloquence, deprived of political influence, migrated from the forum to the schools, where cleverness and point counted rather than rolling periods. Thus developed the epigrammatic style of the younger Seneca and, ultimately, of Tacitus. Spreading to verse, it conditioned the witty couplets of Ovid, the tragedies of Seneca, and the satire of Juvenal. Though Livy stood out, Ciceronianism only found a real champion again in the rhetorician Quintilian.