Injuries from cold or heat

Among physical injuries are injuries caused by cold or heat. Prolonged exposure of tissue to freezing temperatures causes tissue damage known as frostbite. Several factors predispose to frostbite, such as malnutrition leading to a loss of the fatty layer under the skin, lack of adequate clothing, and any type of insufficiency of the peripheral blood vessels, all of which increase the loss of body heat.

When the entire body is exposed to low temperatures over a long period, the result can be alarming. At first blood is diverted from the skin to deeper areas of the body, resulting in anoxia (lack of oxygen) and damage to the skin and the tissues under the skin, including the walls of the small vessels. This damage to the small blood vessels leads to swelling of the tissues beneath the skin as fluid seeps out of the vessels. When the exposure is prolonged, it leads eventually to cooling of the blood itself. Once this has occurred, the results are catastrophic. All the vital organs become affected, and death usually ensues.

Burns may be divided into three categories depending on severity. A first-degree burn is the least destructive and affects the most superficial layer of skin, the epidermis. Sunburn is an example of a first-degree burn. The symptoms are pain and some swelling. A second-degree burn is a deeper and hence more severe injury. It is characterized by blistering and often considerable edema (swelling). A third-degree burn is extremely serious; the entire thickness of the skin is destroyed, along with deeper structures such as muscles. Because the nerve endings are destroyed in such burns, the wound is surprisingly painless in the areas of worst involvement.

The outlook in burn injuries is dependent on the age of the victim and the percent of total body area affected. Loss of fluid and electrolytes and infection associated with loss of skin provide the major causes of burn mortality.

Electrical injuries

The injurious effects of an electrical current passing through the body are determined by its voltage, its amperage, and the resistance of the tissues in the pathway of the current. It must be emphasized that exposure to electricity can be harmful only if there is a contact point of entry and a discharge point through which the current leaves the body. If the body is well insulated against such passage, at the point of either entry or discharge, no current flows and no injury results. The voltage of current refers to its electromotive force, the amperage to its intensity. With high-voltage discharges, such as are encountered when an individual is struck by lightning, the major effect is to disrupt nervous impulses; death is usually caused by interruption of the regulatory impulses of the heart. In low-voltage currents, such as are more likely to be encountered in accidental exposure to house or industrial currents, death is more often due to the stimulation of nerve pathways that cause sustained contractions of muscles and may in this way block respiration. If the electrical shock does not produce immediate death, serious illness may result from the damage incurred by organs in the pathway of the electrical current passing through the body.

Pressure-change injuries

Physical injuries from pressure change are of two general types: (1) blast injury and (2) the effects of too-rapid changes in the atmospheric pressure in the environment. Blast injuries may be transmitted through air or water; their effect depends on the area of the body exposed to the blast. If it is an air blast, the entire body is subject to the strong wave of compression, which is followed immediately by a wave of lowered pressure. In effect the body is first violently squeezed and then suddenly overexpanded as the pressure waves move beyond the body. The chest or abdomen may suffer injuries from the compression, but it is the negative pressure following the wave that induces most of the damage, since overexpansion leads to rupture of the lungs and of other internal organs, particularly the intestines. If the blast injury is transmitted through water, the victim is usually floating, and only that part of the body underwater is exposed. An individual floating on the surface of the water may simply be popped out of the water like a cork and totally escape injury.

Decompression sickness is a disease caused by a too-rapid reduction in atmospheric pressure. Underwater divers, pilots of unpressurized aircraft, and persons who work underwater or below the surface of the Earth are subject to this disorder. As the atmospheric pressure lessens, dissolved gases in the tissues come out of solution. If this occurs slowly, the gases diffuse into the bloodstream and are eventually expelled from the body; if this occurs too quickly, bubbles will form in the tissues and blood. The oxygen in these bubbles is rapidly dissolved, but the nitrogen, which is a significant component of air, is less soluble and persists as bubbles of gas that block small blood vessels. Affected individuals suffer excruciating pain, principally in the muscles, which causes them to bend over in agony—hence the term “bends” used to describe this disorder.

Radiation injury

Radiation can result in both beneficial and dangerous biological effects. There are basically two forms of radiation: particulate, composed of very fast-moving particles (alpha and beta particles, neutrons, and deuterons), and electromagnetic radiation such as gamma rays and X-rays. From a biological point of view, the most important attribute of radiant energy is its ability to cause ionization—to form positively or negatively charged particles in the body tissues that it encounters, thereby altering and, in some cases, damaging the chemical composition of the cells. DNA is highly susceptible to ionizing radiation. Cells and tissues may therefore die because of damage to enzymes, because of the inability of the cell to survive with a defective complement of DNA, or because cells are unable to divide. The cell is most susceptible to irradiation during the process of division. The severity of radiation injury is dependent on the penetrability of the radiation, the area of the body exposed to radiation, and the duration of exposure, variables that determine the total amount of radiant energy absorbed.

When the radiation exposure is confined to a part of the body and is delivered in divided doses, a frequent practice in the treatment of cancer, its effect depends on the vulnerability of the cell types in the body to this form of energy. Some cells, such as those that divide actively, are particularly sensitive to radiation. In this category are the cells of the bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, sex glands, and lining of the stomach and intestines. In contrast, permanently nondividing cells of the body such as nerve and muscle cells are resistant to radiation. The goal of radiation therapy of tumours is to deliver a dosage to the tumours that is sufficient to destroy the cancer cells without too severely injuring the normal cells in the pathway of the radiation. Obviously, when an internal cancer is treated, the skin, underlying fat, muscles, and nearby organs are unavoidably exposed to the radiation. The possibility of delivering effective doses of radiation to the unwanted cancer depends on the ability of the normal cells to withstand the radiation. However, as is the case in drug therapy, radiation treatment is a two-edged sword with both positive and negative aspects.

Finally, there are probable deleterious effects of radiation in producing congenital malformations, certain leukemias, and possibly some genetic disorders (see radiation: Biologic effects of ionizing radiation).