Optical recording

Until the early 1950s the normal recording medium was film. Sound waves were converted into light and recorded onto 35-mm film stock. Today the principal use of optical recording is to make a master optical negative for final exhibition prints after all editing and rerecording have been completed.

Magnetic recording

Magnetic recording offers better fidelity than optical sound, can be copied with less quality loss, and can be played back immediately without development. Magnetic tracks were first used by filmmakers in the late 1940s for recording music. The physical principles are the same as those of the standard tape recorder: the microphone output is fed to a magnet past which a tape coated with iron oxide runs at a constant speed. The changes in magnetic flux are recorded onto the tape as an invisible magnetic “picture” of the sound.

At first the sound was recorded onto 35-mm film that had a magnetic coating. Today sprocketed 35-mm magnetic tape is used during the editing stages. For onset recording, however, the film industry converted gradually to the same unperforated quarter-inch tape format widely used in broadcasting, the record industry, and even the home. Documentary and independent filmmakers were the first to develop and use the portable, more compact apparatus. Improvements in magnetic recording have paralleled those in the recording industry and include the development of multiple-track recording and Dolby noise reduction.

Double-system recording

Although it is possible to reproduce sound, either optically or magnetically, in the same camera that is photographing a scene (a procedure known as single-system recording), there is greater flexibility if the sound track is recorded by a different person and on a separate unit. The main professional use for single-system recording is in filming news, where there is little time to strive for optimal sound or image quality. Motion-picture sound recording customarily uses a double system in which the sound track remains physically separate from the image until the very last stages of postproduction.

Double-system shooting requires a means of rematching corresponding sounds and images. The traditional solution is to mark the beginning of each take with a “clapper,” or “clapstick,” a set of wooden jaws about a foot long, snapped together in the picture field. The instant of clacking then is registered on both picture and sound tracks. Each new take number is identified visually by a number on the clapper board and aurally by voice. A newer version of the clapper is a digital slate that uses light-emitting diodes and an audio link to synchronize film and tape.

Precise synchronism must be maintained between camera and recorder so that sound can be kept perfectly matched to the visuals. (Lack of perfect synchronism is most conspicuous in close-up shots in which a speaker’s lips do not match his voice.) On some occasions several cameras shoot a scene simultaneously from different points of view while only one sound recording is made, or several sound records may be taken of a single shot. Thus, to maintain synchronism, all sound and picture versions of a particular scene must be recorded at the same speed; the camera and the recorder cannot fluctuate in speed. One way to achieve this is to drive all cameras and recorders from a common power supply. Alternatively, synchronization may be achieved through the automatic, continual transmission from cameras to recorders of a sync-pulse signal sent by cable or wireless radio. More convenient yet is crystal sync, whereby the speed of both cameras and recorders is controlled through the use of the oscillation of crystals installed in each piece of equipment. The most advanced system uses a time-code generator to emit numbers in “real-time” on both film and tape.

The sound recordist

The main task of the recordist during live recording is to get “clean” dialogue that eliminates background noise and seems to correspond to the space between speaker and camera. Most of the nonsynchronous dialogue, sound effects, and music can be added and adjusted later. During shooting the sound recordist adjusts the sound by setting levels, altering microphone placement, and mixing (combining signals if there is more than one microphone). Major technical and aesthetic reshaping is left for the postproduction phase when overhead is lower, the facilities are more sophisticated, and alternative versions can be created. It is also the job of the sound personnel to record wild sound (important sound effects and nonsynchronous dialogue) and ambient sound (the inherent sound of the location). Ambient sound is added to the sound track during postproduction to maintain continuity between takes. Usually, wild sound and music are also adjusted and added then.

Microphones

Microphones of many different types have been used for sound recording. These may differ in sound quality, in directional characteristics, and in convenience of use. Conditions that may dictate the choice of a particular microphone include the presence of minor echoes from objects in the set or reproduction of speech in a small room, as distinct from that in a large hall. Painstaking adjustments are made by careful attention to the choice of microphones, by the arrangement and sound absorbency of walls and furniture on the set, and by the exact positioning of the actors. For recording a conversation indoors, the preferred microphone is sensitive in a particular direction in order to reduce extraneous noises from the side and rear. It is usually suspended from a polelike “boom” just beyond camera range in front of and above the actors so that it can be pivoted toward each actor as he speaks. Microphones can also be mounted on a variety of other stands. A second way to cut down background noise is to use a chest (or lavaliere) microphone hidden under the actor’s clothing. For longer shots, radio microphones eliminate the wires connecting actors to recorders by using a miniature transistor radio to send sound to the mixer and recorder.