- The history of Christianity
The history of ecumenism
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While unity is given in Christ, two diametric forces appear in the history of the church: one is the tendency toward sectarianism and division; the other is the conviction toward catholicity and unity. Ecumenism represents the struggle between them. Some of the schisms were theological conflicts foreshadowed in the apostolic church; others were internal quarrels related to liturgical differences, power politics between different patriarchates or church centres, problems of discipline and piety, or social and cultural conflicts. Nevertheless, the entire span of the Christian church’s first two millennia may be viewed as a drive to realize the unity of the earliest church.
Early controversies
A long and continuing trail of broken relations among Christians began in the 2nd century when the gnostics presented a serious doctrinal error and broke fellowship. Quartodecimanism, a dispute over the date of Easter, pitted Christians from Asia Minor against those from Rome. Montanism—which taught a radical enthusiasm, the imminent Second Coming of Christ, and a severe perfection, including abstinence from marriage—split the church. The Novatians broke fellowship with Christians who had offered sacrifices to pagan gods during the persecutions by the Roman emperor Decius in 250 ce. In the early 4th century the Donatists, Christians in North Africa who prided themselves as the church of the martyrs, refused to share communion with those who had lapsed—i.e., those who had denied the faith under threat of death during the great persecutions of Diocletian and Galerius. The Donatists remained a powerful force in Africa into the 5th century and survived into the 7th despite opposition from church and state. This schism—like many since—reflected regional, national, cultural, and economic differences between the poor rural North African Christians and the sophisticated urban Romans.
In each century, leaders and churches sought to reconcile these divisions and to manifest the visible unity of Christ’s church. But in the 5th century a severe break in the unity of the church took place. The public issues were doctrinal consensus and heresy, yet, in the midst of doctrinal controversy, alienation was prompted by political, cultural, philosophical, and linguistic differences. Tensions increased as the church began to define the relationship between God the Father and God the Son and later the relation between the divine and human elements in the nature and person of Jesus Christ. The first four ecumenical councils—at Nicaea (325 ce), Constantinople (381), Ephesus (431), and Chalcedon (451)—defined the consensus to be taught and believed, articulating this faith in the Nicene Creed and the Chalcedonian Definition, which stated that Jesus is the only begotten Son of God, true man, and true God, one person in “two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation.”
Some groups deviated doctrinally from the consensus developed in the councils. Nestorianism, which came to be regarded as a heresy at Ephesus, taught that there are two distinct persons in the incarnate Christ and two natures conjoined as one. Monophysitism, regarded as a heresy at Chalcedon, taught that there is one single, divine nature. Several churches refused to accept the doctrinal and disciplinary decisions of Ephesus and Chalcedon and formed their own communities largely outside what was considered the mainstream of Christianity in Europe and in parts of the Middle East. The Nestorian movement became the Assyrian Church of the East. Several churches that rejected the outcome of Chalcedon were (incorrectly) branded as monophysites. Despite some attempts at reconciliation, both the Nestorian and the alleged monophysite churches were cut off from the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and (later) Protestant churches until the ecumenical movement of the 20th century. Yet, like their European counterparts, they became great missionary churches and spread throughout Africa and Asia.