Western controversies

Until about 250, most Western Christian leaders (e.g., Irenaeus and Hippolytus) spoke Greek, not Latin. The main Latin theology came primarily from such figures as Tertullian and Cyprian (bishop of Carthage, 248–258) rather than from any figure in Rome. Tertullian wrote Against Praxeas, in which he discussed the doctrines of the Trinity and the person of Christ. But in 251 Novatian’s schism at Rome diverted interest away from speculative theology to juridical questions about the membership of the church and the validity of sacraments. Differences of opinion over similar issues in the 4th century led to a schism between Rome and the churches of North Africa. The Donatist controversy, which raised questions about the validity of the sacraments, dominated all North African church life. Cyprian and the Donatists said that the validity of the sacraments depended on the worthiness of the minister, while Rome and North African Christians in communion with Rome said that it did not, because the sacraments received their validity from Christ, not man. Much of the great theologian Augustine’s energies as bishop of Hippo (from 396 to 430) went into trying to settle the Donatist issue, in which he finally despaired of rational argument and reluctantly came to justify the use of limited coercion.

The other major controversy of the Western church was a more confused issue—namely, whether faith is acquired through divine grace or human freedom. In response to his perception of the teachings of the British monk Pelagius, St. Augustine ascribed all credit to God. Pelagius, however, protested that Augustine was destroying human responsibility and denying the capacity of humans to do what God commands. Augustine, in turn, responded in a series of treatises against Pelagius and his disciple Julian of Eclanum. Pelagianism was later condemned at the councils of Carthage (416), Milevis (416), and Ephesus (431) and by two bishops of Rome, St. Innocent I in 416 and Honorius I in 418.

Eastern controversies

In the Greek East the 4th century was dominated by the controversy over the position of Arius, an Alexandrian presbyter (c. 250–336), that the incarnate Lord—who was born, wept, suffered, and died—could not be one with the transcendent first cause of creation, who is beyond all suffering. The Council of Nicaea (325) condemned Arianism and affirmed the Son of God to be identical in essence with the Father. Because this formula included no safeguard against Monarchianism, a long controversy followed, especially after Constantine’s death (337). St. Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria (reigned 328–373), fought zealously against Arianism in the East and owed much to Rome’s support, which only added to the tensions between East and West. These tensions survived the settlement of the Arian dispute in 381, when the Council of Constantinople (381) proclaimed Catholic Christianity the official religion of the empire, thus eliminating Arianism in the East, but also asserted Constantinople, as the new Rome, to be the second see of Christendom. This assertion was unwelcome to Alexandria, traditionally the second city of the empire, and to Rome, because it implied that the dignity of a bishop depended on the secular standing of his city. Rivalry between Alexandria and Constantinople led to the fall of St. John Chrysostom, patriarch of Constantinople (reigned 398–404), when he appeared to support Egyptian monks who admired the controversial theology of Origen. It became a major feature of the emerging controversy over Christology, church teaching regarding the nature of Christ.

The Christological controversy stemmed from the rival doctrines of Apollinaris of Laodicea (flourished 360–380) and Theodore of Mopsuestia (c. 350–428), representatives of the rival schools of Alexandria and Antioch, respectively. The Council of Ephesus (431)—led by St. Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria (reigned 412–444) and nephew of Athanasius—condemned an extreme Antiochene Christology taught by Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople. The position of Nestorius was that Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ, may not properly be called mother of God (Greek theotokos, or “God-bearer”), because she was the mother only of the human Jesus, not of the preexistent Word of God. This position shocked not only the Alexandrians but also the majority of other Christians, who had held that Jesus Christ had both human and divine natures that were equally present in his person (hypostasis). Nestorius’s dyophysite, or “two-nature,” doctrine was vigorously attacked by Cyril, who proposed a carefully worded Christological formula declaring that there was “one nature of the Word which became incarnate.”

Although the Council of Ephesus thus dispensed with one perceived threat to Christian orthodoxy, it gave rise to another. Cyril’s Christological statement, which was accepted by many Eastern Christians, came to be associated with a stance called monophysitism. This “one-nature” teaching, espoused by a 5th-century priest named Eutyches, a staunch opponent of Nestorius, emphasized Christ’s divine nature to such an extent that it apparently devalued, disparaged, and effectively negated Christ’s humanity (Eutyches compared the relationship between Christ’s humanity and his divinity to a single grain of sugar in the ocean). Cyril affirmed the equal presence of Christ’s humanity and divinity, and his Christology found wide acceptance among the Christians of Egypt, Ethiopia, Armenia, and Syria in particular.

Meanwhile, Pope Leo I (reigned 440–461) led a reaction against this purported monophysite doctrine that culminated in the Council of Chalcedon (451). The council issued a Christological formula affirming that Christ had two distinct natures that were neither commingled nor divided and that were equally present in one person. The Egyptian (Coptic) and Syrian Christians, soon joined by Ethiopian and Armenian Christians, rejected the Chalcedonian formula as a promotion of dyophysitism and upheld Cyril’s Christological formula from Ephesus. These “non-Chalcedonian” churches were subsequently regarded as monophysite heretics by the Roman and Eastern Orthodox churches. However, they consistently refuted the claim, declaring that Christ’s human and divine natures, while distinct, were equally present through the mystery of the Incarnation in a single person, a doctrine that later became known as miaphysitism.

During the next 250 years, the Byzantine emperors and patriarchs attempted to reconcile the non-Chalcedonians with the churches that had recognized Chalcedon. First, under the emperor Zeno (reigned 474–491), the Henotikon (union formula) offended Rome by suggesting that the criticism of Chalcedon might be justified. Then, under the emperor Justinian (reigned 527–565), the Chalcedonian definition was glossed by condemning the “Three Chapters,” which included the writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret, and Ibas, all strong critics of St. Cyril of Alexandria’s theology and of the alleged monophysitism of the non-Chalcedonian churches. In Syria, Jacob Baradaeus, a bishop, responded to this by establishing a non-Chalcedonian episcopate. In the West he was perceived as having created a monophysite schism; the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East, which arose from his efforts, is often pejoratively referred to as “Jacobite.” Finally, under the emperor Heraclius (reigned 610–641), the Chalcedonians invited the non-Chalcedonians to reunite under the formula that Christ had two natures but only one will (monothelitism), but this only created divisions among the Chalcedonians themselves.

From the 7th century until the mid-20th century, the Chalcedonian and non-Chalcedonian churches, also known as Oriental Orthodox churches, remained out of contact. In the mid-20th century, under the influence of the ecumenical movement, the Oriental Orthodox churches began dialogue with the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches in hopes of finally resolving the schism that had emerged after the Council of Chalcedon. By the final third of the century, most of the ancient disputes had been resolved, and Oriental Orthodox Christians had come to be viewed by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches as Christians in good standing and no longer heretical. However, Chalcedon’s “two natures” formula continues to be rejected by the Oriental Orthodox churches: the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Coptic Orthodox Church, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East (erroneously and disparagingly referred to as “Syrian Jacobites”), the Malankara (Indian) Orthodox Syrian Church, and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.