- Related Topics:
- enamelwork
- bronze work
- copper work
- ironwork
- silverwork
Syria, Egypt, and Anatolia were first the teachers and then the rivals of Constantinople (Istanbul). The fusion of antique and Eastern elements resulted in the Byzantine style, the great period of which dates from the 9th to the end of the 12th century. The extensive use of embossed work, with filigree, cabochon gems, and small plaques of enamel, may be seen in both the East and the West during the early Middle Ages. The most conspicuous examples of large Byzantine metalwork are bronze church doors inlaid with silver. Many objects are still preserved in various European treasuries, which were enriched by the spoils of the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Venice, in the Treasury of St. Mark’s, has an unrivaled series of Byzantine chalices, bookbindings, and other treasures of metalwork; but it is in Kiev, Moscow, and Leningrad that broadly representative series of all the categories of Byzantine artistic production may be found.
The art of bronze casting had been preserved in the Byzantine Empire. The first bronze doors to be made after the art had died out in Rome were those for Hagia Sophia at Constantinople, which bear the date 838; the panels, with monograms and other ornament damascened in silver, are framed in borders cast in relief and enriched with bosses and scrolls, the whole in an admirable style. Two sets of doors in St. Mark’s, Venice, of Greek workmanship and considerable but uncertain antiquity, are supposed by some to have been removed from St. Mark’s at Alexandria. Next in date among surviving doors of Byzantine workmanship is a series ordered by the Pantaleone family (about 1066–87) and destined for cities in southern Italy—Amalfi, Trani, Salerno, Canosa di Puglia, and Monte Sant’Angelo.
Stephen Vincent GrancsayMiddle Ages: Islām
Animals in the Sāsānian style—lions, dragons, sphinxes, peacocks, doves, cocks, and the like—were cast in bronze in three dimensions and served, like their ceramic counterparts, as basins, braziers, and so on. They were particularly sought after in the later Abbāsid, Fātimid, and Seljuq periods, and from Egypt they became prototypes of similar European forms. It was the Seljuqs, apparently, who introduced a round bronze mirror, the reverse of which shows in low relief two sphinxes face to face, surrounded by a twined pattern, or two friezes with the astrological symbols of the seven chief heavenly bodies (Sun, Moon, and the five nearest planets) and the 12 signs of the zodiac, surrounded by a band of script; this goes back ultimately to Chinese origins.
Early vessels, such as mugs, were ornamented with animals in low relief, but engraving quickly supplanted this. Under the later Seljuqs (particularly the Artuqid atabegs of Mosul) and the Mamlūks, engraving became almost the only form of decoration, but only to serve as a basis for the yet richer technique of inlaying, or damascening: small silver plates and wires, themselves delicately engraved, were hammered into the ribs and surfaces, which were hollowed out and undercut at the edges.
In place of this, in an Artuqid bowl in the provincial museum at Innsbruck the spaces are filled in with cellular enamel. This was a method of evading the prohibition of precious metals, just as gold luster was in pottery. The ornament consisted of friezes and medallions in lattice work and arabesque work, the interstices being filled with figures of warriors, hunters, musicians, animals, and astrological symbols. These were superseded later by Mamlūk coats of arms and inscriptions. In the 15th century the technique was imported from Syria to Venice, where productions of the same kind, alla damaschina or all’azzimina, were made right into the 16th century by Islāmic masters and were in great demand. In the East the process is still common, but both technically and artistically it has decayed.
In the 15th century there was a renaissance of pure metal engraving, but the design—inscriptions and arabesques in the Tīmūrid and Ṣafavid styles—was not cut into the material but left free in the manner of a relief, the background being etched in black. Decoration was applied to bowls, basins, mugs, vases, mortars, braziers, warming pans, candlesticks, smoking utensils, inkstands, jewel cases, Qurʾān holders, and mosque lamps. These are generally in the simplest possible forms—spherical, cylindrical, prismatic; the subjects include motifs of vegetation and animal life, the former mainly in the necks and feet of vessels, the latter for handles and ears, feet, and sometimes small spouts.
Hermann GoetzEurope from the Middle Ages
After several centuries of artistic decline, the art of bronze casting was revived in c. 800 by Charlemagne, who had monumental bronze portals made for the Palatine Chapel in his residence in Aachen, with bronze grilles placed inside it. The artists, who probably came from Lombardy, followed the styles of classical antiquity.
For many centuries the Christian Church remained the bronze caster’s chief patron. Like the stonemasons, who also were heavily patronized by the church, they joined together to form associations, or foundries. These casting foundries hired themselves out to the large ecclesiastical building sites. They cast bells—almost every church had at least one bell—and monumental doors decorated with relief work; for instance, doors for Mainz (c. 1000) and Hildesheim (1015) cathedrals, for the cathedrals at Gneissen and Augsburg (11th century), and for St. Zeno Maggiore in Verona (12th century). They also made large fonts, the most famous being the one made by Renier de Huy in 1107–18 for the church of Notre Dame aux Fonts in Liège (now in the church of St. Barthélemy in Liège). The Dinant workshops, which formed the main center for bronze casting in the Meuse district in the Middle Ages, specialized in what are known as “eagle lecterns.” These are book stands with ornamental pedestals, with the panel supporting the enormous missals taking the form of the outspread wings of an eagle, a griffin, or a pelican. The earliest documented eagle lectern was made in 965, but the earliest example to have survived dates from 1372. It was made by Jean Joses of Dinant for the Church of Our Lady at Tongeren (Tongres), near Liège.
Records show that from the 11th to the 15th century there were more than 50 monumental seven-branched candlesticks (menorah) in various churches in Germany, England, France, Bohemia, and Italy, though only a few of these have survived. Documents relating to the Carolingian period speak of monumental bronze crucifixes and statues of the Virgin and of the saints, though the earliest surviving statues date from the 11th century; the crucifix in the abbey church at Werden, for example, dates from c. 1060 and was probably cast in a foundry in Lower Saxony.
Among the most outstanding examples of figurative bronze sculpture dating from the Romanesque period are a group of reliquaries designed in the shape of heads or heads and shoulders or occasionally arms, hands, or feet, according to the type of relics they contain. They were made in Lower Saxony or in France.
A few large chandeliers have survived from the 11th and 12th centuries, representing a sort of halfway stage between sculpture and functional objects. A far larger number are known to have existed from documents and contemporary accounts, but these have disappeared over the centuries. Examples from Germany, the southern half of the Low Countries, and France have survived or are documented. Romanesque chandeliers are always designed in the form of a crown. Candleholders, with architectonic structures and figures placed in between them, project from the crown.
Besides the monumental bronzes that have survived from the 8th to the 12th century, there are also a number of smaller pieces, such as processional crosses, altar crucifixes, chests, reliquaries, and similar articles. Another group of liturgical objects consists of candlesticks used to adorn altars. Their design often shows a wealth of invention, and they are decorated in the most sumptuous fashion. There was yet another group of candlesticks, which were secular in nature, that embodied the ideal of chivalry. They are cast in the shape of human figures: an armed warrior on horseback bearing a candleholder with a spike on which the candle is placed; a kneeling page in court dress holding a candle socket in his outstretched hands; or Samson perched on the lion’s back, brandishing a candleholder. These candlestick figures are rare and precious examples of courtly life in the Romanesque period in Germany, France, England, and Scandinavia. Even at that time they were thought of as rare, deluxe articles within the reach of only a few privileged people.
Toward the end of the Romanesque period a simpler type of candlestick appeared, mainly intended for religious purposes, though they were found in private homes as well. They are circular, with a round base, a slender column-like shaft, and a large grease pan with a spike for the candle. This design exercised a strong influence throughout the Gothic period and right down to the Baroque period, though it varied considerably over the years according to the styles then prevailing.
Some of the finest bronze articles of the High Middle Ages were modeled on pieces brought back from the Holy Land by the crusaders. They are known as aquamaniles, a type of ewer used for pouring water for washing one’s hands. Made by bronze casters in France, Germany, England, and Scandinavia, they are usually in the shape of lions—symbols of valor, pride, physical strength, and power. Also common are those shaped like knights in armor, with a wealth of courtly detail that was obviously popular. A few aquamaniles are in the shape of winged dragons, doves, cockerels, centaurs, or sirens; but such designs are rare. Christian themes, too, played a part, some examples depicting Samson overcoming the lion with his knee planted on its back. The golden age of these vessels was the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries. The end of the age of chivalry also saw a decline in such work, for the emergent bourgeoisie found other ways of marking the ceremony of hand washing.
Basins were also needed for washing one’s hands; they are often mentioned in medieval documents, where they are referred to as bacina, pelves, or pelvicula. The majority of these bowls—which date from the 12th and 13th centuries—have been found in the cultural area that extends from the Baltic down to the Lower Rhine district and across to England. Because this area was once dominated by the Hanseatic League (a commercial association of free towns), the basins are known as Hanseatic bowls. They are round, some being more convex than others; and the inside is engraved with scenes from classical mythology, with themes from the Old and New Testaments and the legends of the saints, or with allegorical figures personifying the virtues and the vices, the liberal arts, the seasons, and so on. Hanseatic bowls were probably made in the bronze-casting centers where candlesticks and aquamaniles (and indeed all medieval cast bronze) were made: in the Meuse district and Lorraine, in Lower Saxony and the Harz Mountains, and also in England. The decoration on these bowls may have been added elsewhere.
In the Romanesque period and later, in the Gothic period, the churches and their patrons were still the bronze caster’s main clients, ordering both functional objects and decorative pieces. Bronze fonts were relatively common in the 14th and 15th centuries, particularly in churches in northern Germany. Another common item, which was made mainly in England and in the Netherlands, was a large brass tombstone decorated with engraving. Other objects included door fittings, candlesticks, candelabra, chandeliers, pulpits, and sculptured tombs portraying the deceased.
