Hot springs and geysers
- Key People:
- Sir William Hamilton
- Arthur L. Day
- Walter Herman Bucher
- Related Topics:
- hot spring
- mud volcano
- fumarole
- volcanic neck
- hot-spot volcano
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Hot springs and geysers also are manifestations of volcanic activity. They result from the interaction of groundwater with magma or with solidified but still-hot igneous rocks at shallow depths.
Yellowstone National Park in the United States is one of the most famous areas of hot springs and geysers in the world. The total heat flux from these thermal features is estimated to be 300 megawatts (300 million watts). The last great eruption at Yellowstone occurred about 630,000 years ago when some 1,000 cubic km (240 cubic miles) of rhyolitic pumice and ash were ejected in huge pyroclastic flows and resulted in the formation of a caldera—a large circular or oval depression caused by collapse of the surface following magma removal—approximately 45 by 75 km (28 by 47 miles) in size. Yellowstone Lake now occupies part of this giant caldera. Since that last great outburst, about 1,200 cubic km (288 cubic miles) of rhyolite lava flows and domes have erupted in numerous smaller events. The cooling roots of such past eruptions, or possibly the new intrusions of magma at shallow depth, are the heat sources for the Yellowstone hot springs and geysers.
Geysers are hot springs that intermittently spout a column of hot water and steam into the air. This action is caused by the water in deep conduits beneath a geyser approaching or reaching the boiling point. At 300 metres (about 1,000 feet) below the surface, the boiling point of water increases to approximately 230 °C (450 °F) because of the increased pressure of the overlying water. As bubbles of steam or dissolved gas begin to form, rise, and expand, hot water spills from the geyser’s vent, lowering the pressure on the water column below. Water at depth then momentarily exceeds its boiling point and flashes into steam, forcing additional water from the vent. This chain reaction continues until the geyser exhausts its supply of boiling water.
After a geyser stops spouting, the conduits at depth refill with groundwater, and reheating begins again. In geysers such as Yellowstone’s Old Faithful, the spouting and recharge period is quite regular. This famous geyser has gushed to heights of 30 to 55 metres (100 to 180 feet) about every 90 minutes for more than 100 years. If Old Faithful’s eruption lasts only a minute or two, the next interval will be shorter than average, while a four-minute eruption will be followed by a longer interval. Other geysers have much more erratic recharge times.
Volcanism and tectonic activity
Taking a more distant view of volcanic landforms from space, one can see that most volcanoes group together to form linear to arcuate belts across Earth’s surface. It is now clear that these volcanic chains are closely related to global tectonic activity. Many active volcanoes are located in the so-called “Ring of Fire” made up of island arcs and mountain ranges bordering the Pacific Ocean (see the ). The concept of seafloor spreading and, more broadly, the theory of plate tectonics offer a logical explanation for the location of most volcanoes.