Scope of letterpress
Letterpress printing is characterized by the sharpness and strength of bite of the type. It produces good reproduction of illustrations on sheet-fed machines, with these two reservations, that screening prevents the reproduction of pure white, and it is not possible to use more than four colors without risking a speckled moiré pattern. Roll-fed printing still preserves a good sharpness in the text but produces only an acceptable or average photographic illustration, depending on the quality of paper, and then only in black. color printing of illustrations on roll-fed rotaries can hardly rise above the mediocre level, even with the use of special rotaries in which the printing groups are drawn as close together as possible.
Rotogravure
Rotogravure is a system of intaglio printing. It consists of transferring to paper fluid ink contained in the cells of the printing cylinder, while the projecting nonprinting areas on the surface of this cylinder are kept free of ink by constant wiping.
The density of the print at each point depends on the depth of the cell at that point and the quantity of ink it contains, rather than on the printing surface, as in the letterpress process. The screen no longer plays an optical role. It is used to establish the partitions that separate all the cells of the honeycomb from each other and that form a surface of uniform height, while the cells are all of different depths, so that the ink is taken up on the engraved surface in an exactly defined quantity. The screen also prevents the wiping mechanism from penetrating the cells of the cylinder and withdrawing the ink. For this reason, line drawings and even the text type must be screened, as well as the photographic illustrations.
Rotogravure rotaries are thus composed of two principal elements: the cylinder bearing the printing form and the impression cylinder; the paper moves between these two cylinders either in sheets or from a roll.
The nature of the ink used in rotogravure and the operation of the wiping mechanism make the use of plates technically more delicate because of the indentation that would be necessary in the places where they were affixed to the cylinder. Plates are used only on certain sheet-fed machines, because they are easier to prepare and stock. Generally speaking, the image is etched directly onto the printing cylinder, which must therefore be easily handled.
Ink of sufficient fluidity is used to allow direct inking of the engraved cylinder without the use of a roller to spread and distribute it. While the paper tangential to its upper surface is being printed, the lower part of the cylinder is bathing in the pool of ink. In fast-working machines the ink can be poured on through a spout or sprayed onto the surface of the cylinder, to avoid flying ink. On the plate machines, inking must be done by roller to avoid filling the hollows of the clamping system with ink.
Between inking and printing, the wiping mechanism comes into action. It consists of a thin blade of soft steel, the scraper, or doctor blade, which moves slowly to and fro lengthwise. By rubbing against the cylinder with a precisely regulated degree of pressure, it causes the excess ink to drop off before the cylinder moves over the paper.
In sheet-fed machines the impression cylinder is like that of a letterpress press, with a diameter large enough to carry the sheet wrapped around its surface, gripped and released by a system of articulated clamps. Production speed can attain 6,000 sheets per hour.
Roll-fed rotaries generally consist of several printing units in line (up to as many as 18), each composed of a printing cylinder, an inking system, and a hard-rubber impression cylinder of small diameter. Each unit can turn in either direction to allow the paper to move through in any combination.
When printing both sides, the same roll of paper must pass through two successive printing units. In color printing the same roll must move through as many printing units as there are colors used on each side of the paper. Several rolls coming from different printing units can be added together by accumulation.
Rotogravure rotaries normally include the same folding and cutting systems as letterpress rotaries, along with the electronic devices necessary for controlling the operation. Because of the fluidity of the ink, all rotogravure machines, whether sheet-fed or roll-fed, require a drying process. The paper passes over a heated drum or over sources of infrared rays or through a compartment ventilated with hot or cold air.
Preparing rotogravure cylinders
The printing cylinders or plates are prepared from positives of pages on which neither text nor illustrations are screened. The photosensitive substance necessary for carrying out the photoengraving operation, carbon tissue, is separately packaged to permit it to be treated before being affixed to the metal. Carbon tissue is paper, in sheets or on rolls, coated with a layer of gelatin. This layer is sensitized before use by being plunged into a solution of potassium bichromate. The carbon tissue is first exposed to intense light through a glass plate bearing a transparent screen on an opaque background and then exposed a second time through a positive of the pages. During these two exposures the gelatin is hardened by the light, completely in the white and screened areas, more or less deeply in the halftones of the photographic illustrations, and not at all in the areas covered by text and lines.
The carbon tissue is then applied to the copper surface of the cylinder (or plate). The tissue is then peeled off, leaving the gelatin film fused with the metal. The cylinder (or plate) is plunged into a warm-water bath, which dissolves the gelatin in inverse proportion to the degree to which it was hardened: totally in areas where it received no light like the text and line drawings, more or less deeply in the halftone photographic illustrations, and not at all in the screened areas.
The etching of the copper is begun by sprinkling it with a solution of ferric chloride, which attacks the metal in the areas where the gelatin is totally dissolved and bites into it more or less deeply depending on the thickness of the surviving gelatin that it must penetrate. After being etched, the printing surface can be reinforced by chromium plating.
Improvements on this classic method of preparing the rotogravure plate are continually being made. The carbon tissue may be replaced with silver emulsions on a plastic base; a direct copy without carbon tissue may be made by dusting the cylinder with a photosensitive substance and projecting the image on the surface of the cylinder by optical means or by electronic engraving.
Plates for rotogravure are made of solid copper. Rotogravure cylinders consist of a steel mandrel on which a layer of copper has been deposited by electroplating. After printing, the etching is removed by grinding and a thin film of copper deposited to restore the cylinder to its original diameter. Restoration is simplified if the film can be prevented from adhering to the cylinder so that it can be ripped off after printing. This can be done by coating the surface of the cylinder with a copper–mercury amalgam before electroplating. After plating, the new copper film is then polished. Some electroplating baths produce a shiny copper finish, dispensing with the polishing operation.
Scope of rotogravure
Even in long runs, rotogravure produces quality illustrations with rich colors. It is less suited to printing small typefaces because they are cut up by the screen.
Offset
The first characteristic of offset printing is that the printing and the nonprinting elements are parts of a single continuous surface. The difference is simply that the printing parts of the surface repel water when moistened but absorb the ink with which they are coated, whereas the nonprinting parts absorb the water and repel the ink. The form used in offset printing is a metal plate the surface of which has been prepared to divide it into the parts with these opposite properties.
The second characteristic of offset printing is that the ink is not transferred directly from the printing form to the paper but is first transferred to a rubber blanket. It is the ink retained by the blanket that is transferred to the paper.
Offset presses utilize three principal elements: the plate cylinder; the blanket cylinder; and the impression cylinder, which applies the paper, in sheets or a roll, against the blanket cylinder.
The plate cylinder is like the cylinder for wraparound plates on a letterpress rotary, with a groove in which the attaching and tension mechanisms are housed. A moistening system and an inking system are connected to this cylinder. The inking system is similar to that on letterpress presses, with a series of alternating hard and soft rollers that grind, spread, and evenly distribute the ink in a uniform thickness.
The wetting system, which dampens the plate before it is inked, consists of a series of rollers that transmit regularly controlled quantities of water taken up by puddling in a tank or sprayed from rotary brushes grazing its surface.
The blanket cylinder also has a groove containing the mechanism for attaching and controlling the tension of the blanket, which consists of several layers of fabric and rubber. During printing the groove of the blanket cylinder and that of the plate cylinder coincide at each revolution.
On sheet-fed machines the impression cylinder has a cavity in which a system of articulated grippers is recessed. The movement of the machine is synchronized so that at each revolution the slightly projecting grippers enter into the groove in the blanket cylinder in such a way as to cause no damage to the latter. This problem does not arise on the impression cylinders of roll-fed rotaries, and their movement does not therefore have to be synchronized with that of the other cylinders.
In sheet-fed presses the three cylinders, usually placed side by side, are of the same diameter and turn at the same speed. The movement of the cylinders is synchronized by meshing sprocket wheels. Paper is fed in by a feeder similar to that of letterpress presses.
Offset machines can be used to print very large sheets. The fastest can produce 10,000 sheets per hour.
In printing two or more colors, during the offset process the dampness of the plate is partly transferred, via the blanket, to the paper. This slightly alters the paper’s dimensions, causing difficulties in register. The separate colors are therefore printed as nearly simultaneously as possible.
On some two-color machines a single impression cylinder applies each sheet successively against two blanket cylinders, each of which receives a transfer from its own plate cylinder.
More generally, sheet-fed offset machines printing in two or more colors are designed as a series of printing units each consisting of three cylinders with their wetting and inking systems, the sheet being transferred from one unit to the next on drums of large diameter with a system of articulated grippers. Size of paper and speed are the same as for the one-color machines.
In the offset process an unusual arrangement, without impression cylinders, is possible. Simultaneous printing is done of both sides of the sheet as it passes between two juxtaposed blanket cylinders. Each receives a transfer from its own plate cylinder and prints one side of the sheet while at the same time acting as an impression cylinder for printing the other side of the sheet. Thus, the blanket-to-blanket machine consists of a total of only four cylinders.
The various kinds of machines can be used in combination: for example, three one-color printing units and one blanket-to-blanket machine can print one side of the sheet in four colors, the other side in black.
Roll-fed rotaries work on the same principle as sheet-fed presses, with two differences—the groove for the plate fasteners on the plate cylinder is very narrow, and the impression cylinder, lacking grippers, has an entirely level surface.
In-line rotaries are designed as a succession of one-color printing units or, more frequently, blanket-to-blanket units. On these, as on the others, printing in several colors is done by sending the paper directly and horizontally through several successive units.
On blanket-to-blanket rotaries, the back is printed simultaneously with the front. On rotaries made up of one-color units, a turning bar reverses the direction in which the roll of paper presents itself. Feeding the paper into and taking delivery of it from the machine can be combined so that the rolls are superimposed to form a signature.
Satellite rotaries (drum presses) work on the principle of a single impression cylinder of very large diameter that has arranged around its outer surface four, five, or sometimes six blanket cylinders. Each receives a transfer from its own individually moistened and inked plate cylinder. Thus, color printing one side of a roll of paper is accomplished in a single revolution of the impression cylinder.
Drum cylinders are most often made up of two symmetrical groups printing one side after the other. For quality color printing with a heavy thickness of ink, rapid drying is necessary to prevent smudging. The roll therefore moves horizontally into a drier heated by a ramp of gas burners or hot-air blowers and is cooled as it passes over metal drums refrigerated by circulating water.
Offset rotaries work at a speed of 15,000 to 20,000 revolutions per hour and have the same cutting and folding systems as letterpress rotaries.
Preparing the plates used in offset involves defining and fixing the joint presence of two mutually repellent materials, one water-receptive for the nonprinting areas, and the other ink-receptive for the printing areas. As in letterpress the screen is necessary to translate the halftones of photographic illustrations into surface densities.
Even though there is no question of creating reliefs, the preparation process is very similar to that of photoengraving. But, because the blanket intervenes between plate and paper, text and illustrations appear on the same offset plate in straight rather than in reverse reading as on letterpress plates.
