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One explanation for the changes evidenced in this “institutionalist” view of education can be found in the human-capital theory first popularized by American economist Theodore Schultz in “Investment in Human Capital,” his presidential address to the American Economic Association in 1960. According to this theory, education is not a form of consumption that represents a costly expenditure for government but instead serves as an investment that improves the economic worth of individuals (e.g., human capital) and thereby raises a country’s overall productivity and economic competitiveness. In other words, governments support education because it ultimately strengthens their countries.
Global enrollment trends since the mid-20th century
Each of these theories partially explains the widespread increase in enrollments, as reported by UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), in all levels of education during the last half of the 20th century. Broadly speaking, enrollments increased substantially for school-age children and youths, while adult illiteracy rates decreased significantly. In the second half of the 20th century, the proportion of children worldwide enrolled at all levels (from primary through tertiary) increased from less than half to approximately two-thirds of the relevant age-groups.
Much of this enrollment growth was a product of political change. Most countries in a postcolonial phase expand their education systems, largely because it is something governments can do at a reasonable cost with significant effect. With the opening of schools to many who were once denied education under semifeudal, colonial, or totalitarian systems, it has not been uncommon to find large numbers of overage students enrolled. First-grade classes might have an age range from 6 to 11. Overall, primary-school enrollments more than tripled in the last half of the 20th century, from slightly more than 200 million to some 670 million; secondary education increased more than ninefold, from more than 40 million to nearly 400 million; and tertiary education increased more than 12-fold, from about 7 million to nearly 90 million. Higher levels of enrollment are usually sustained, in part, because “credentialing”—the attainment of degrees or certificates of achievement—has become a social necessity. Employers tend to seek highly schooled individuals while depending on the education system to prepare and distinguish job candidates. In addition, enrollments have been known to gain momentum through the “queuing” effect; that is, when people line up to participate in something, others soon join the crowd in the belief that something of value will be obtained.
Primary-level school enrollments
In not only the industrially developed world but also in other regions (e.g., Latin America and East and South Asia), gross primary-school enrollment rates had reached 95 to 100 percent by the beginning of the 21st century, while in Africa they had achieved an average of about 80 percent. Some of the world’s least-developed countries took the most dramatic steps toward offering universal primary education in the final decades of the 20th century. As late as 1970 less than half of the relevant school-age population attended primary schools in such countries, but by 1997 primary-school enrollments in the least-developed countries had grown to include more than 70 percent of school-age children. Between 1999 and 2005, the overall number of children entering primary education worldwide increased by 4 percent, from 130 million to 135 million. Worldwide total enrollment for primary education increased 6 percent, to 688 million. The biggest gains for entering students took place in sub-Saharan Africa, with an increase of 40 percent. Some countries, however, continued to lag behind this trend. Some of the world’s lowest primary-school enrollment rates persisted in countries such as Niger and Djibouti (both less than 40 percent). Although primary education, as compared with higher levels of schooling, is the least costly to maintain and the easiest to expand, a 2008 UNESCO Global Monitoring Report, “Education for All,” concluded that a number of sub-Saharan African and Arab countries were not likely to achieve universal primary education by 2015. Another significant challenge is to provide continuing education opportunities for those who complete basic schooling.
Secondary-level school enrollments
In the second half of the 20th century, secondary-school enrollments worldwide expanded from less than one-fifth to almost two-thirds of the relevant age-group. Between 1999 and 2005, enrollment in secondary education grew by 17 percent to 512 million worldwide, an increase of 73 million. Secondary education in developed countries has become, with few exceptions, universally available. In East Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America, secondary-education enrollment rates ranged from approximately 60 percent to 70 percent at the beginning of the 21st century. South Asia and Africa had the lowest enrollment rates, at approximately one-half and one-third of the age-group, respectively. Between 1999 and 2005, the fastest growth rates in secondary education occurred in sub-Saharan Africa, South and West Asia, and the Arab countries at 55 percent, 27 percent, and 21 percent, respectively. Enrollment numbers are significantly dependent upon a country’s economic resources; it has been the case, for instance, that many youths in this age group cannot attend school because they are needed to supplement family income.
There was a marked worldwide trend toward more comprehensive secondary education in the second half of the 20th century. The higher enrollments were intended to permit students to continue with higher education instead of being “tracked” into different schools and programs that provided a terminal vocational education. However, not all college and university graduates find work that is commensurate with their educational attainment. Increasingly, large numbers of underemployed tertiary-level graduates have led to a renewed interest in vocational education. At both the primary- and secondary-education levels, another worldwide trend has been the inclusion of a greater number of courses in mathematics and science, accompanied by a growing emphasis on computer-related courses intended to prepare students of all ages for participation in the modern economy and its dynamic labour needs.
Tertiary-level school enrollments
Higher education, which once had the primary purpose of educating religious leaders, now acts as a gateway to the modern sectors of national economies and often to a higher social status. Higher education is also where the greatest constriction of enrollments occurs. Worldwide, fewer than one-fifth of those aged 18–24 were engaged in some form of tertiary education at the turn of the 21st century, with less than 5 percent of those in the least-developed countries enrolled. By contrast, in the most industrialized and developed countries, higher-education enrollment as of 2005 reached approximately half of the age group, with rates of greater than two-thirds in North America and western Europe and nearly three-fifths in Oceania. Between 1999 and 2005, tertiary education enrollment grew by 45 million students to 138 million, with Brazil, China, India, Nigeria, Cuba, and South Korea showing the greatest gains. In some countries access to higher education has come to be considered an entitlement or, alternatively, a social requirement for entry into the most prestigious occupations or high political offices.
Since the 1990s international trends in higher education include rapid growth of private institutions, closer ties to the marketplace (such as corporate sponsorship of university research), and institutional differentiation (such as specialization in particular subject areas or occupations). Postsecondary-learning options range from distance education and short-term courses to extended residential stays and postgraduate work at world-class institutions. Some of these trends stem from advances in communications and international travel. Developed countries not only provide more students with a greater variety of study options but also invest more heavily in the research-and-development infrastructure of higher education. However, regional differences in the capacity of higher-education systems to contribute to scientific research and technological innovation may constitute an even greater gap than differences in material wealth between the richest and poorest countries.
Other developments in formal education
At the other end of the school continuum, access to early childhood care and preschool education became increasingly important in preparing children for success in school. Although preschool enrollments more than doubled to approximately 100 million between 1975 and 2000, in many countries access was not always guaranteed to the poorest and most marginalized members of society, and private preschools frequently accounted for a majority of the options available to parents. Some countries, however, have attempted to provide universal preprimary education to all children for purposes of both child development and the socialization of individuals toward a national identity. France, for example, possesses a strong notion of a national, secular identity that was forged in the French Revolution. Debates at the beginning of the 21st century about the right of French students to wear religiously symbolic clothing or jewelry were, in fact, rooted in the values that emerged from the revolutionary period. In Italy an emphasis on early schooling was the result of social movements of the early 1960s. According to the American sociologist William Corsaro and the Italian psychologist Francesca Emiliani, the massive migration to cities and the active participation of women in labour protests brought demands that the state provide basic social services—including education and publicly funded child care.
Contemporaneous experiences in other parts of the world were quite different. Political revolution in China, for example, changed the very nature of education. Although traditional Chinese culture had attached great importance to education as a means of enhancing a person’s worth and career, by the end of the 1950s the Chinese government could no longer provide jobs adequate to meeting the expectations of those who had acquired some formal schooling. Furthermore, the anti-intellectualism inherent in the mass campaign periods of the Great Leap Forward and, especially, the Cultural Revolution diminished the status and quality of education. The damage done to China’s human capital was so great that it took decades to make up the loss.
A shift to rapid and pragmatic economic development occurred in the late 1970s, when China’s educational system increasingly trained individuals in technical skills so that they could fulfill the needs of the advanced, modern sectors of the economy. The overall trend in Chinese education reflected a combination of fewer students and higher scholastic standards, resulting in a steeply hierarchical educational system. At the turn of the 21st century, slightly more than one-third of the total population had completed primary schooling while roughly one-tenth of all Chinese had finished a secondary school education; fewer than 4 percent had earned an advanced degree. By the end of the 20th century, however, higher-education enrollments in China had grown rapidly. The government had permitted the opening of private educational institutions and had begun to decentralize the overall governance of education.
Higher education in China has expanded dramatically from nearly 7 percent of students in tertiary education in 1999 to nearly 22 percent in 2006. In 2007 almost 19 million students were enrolled in universities, and another 5 million were receiving some form of adult higher education at either the bachelor- or the associate-degree levels. In the same year, approximately 16 percent of students receiving higher education were enrolled in private institutions. Forty-eight percent were female.
Literacy as a measure of success
Between 1950 and 2000 the worldwide illiteracy rate dropped from approximately 44 percent to 20 percent of the population aged 15 and older. Yet the number of illiterate people, according to UNESCO data, increased from approximately 700 million in 1950 to some 860 million in 2000 due to rapid population growth in less-developed countries with inadequate education coverage. In the early 21st century South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa remained among the regions with the highest illiteracy rates, at about two-fifths. India and China—each with populations exceeding 1 billion and illiteracy rates of approximately two-fifths and one-sixth, respectively—accounted for a majority of the world’s illiterate adults. Even in developed countries, illiteracy rates of less than 2 percent continued to mask sizable populations who could not understand written communications or use various forms of print material in their everyday lives.
Global commitments to education and equality of opportunity
Countries increase the social and economic opportunities for their citizens by increasing access to a basic education that includes instruction in math, language skills, science, history, civics, and the arts. The right of individuals to an educational program that respects their personality, talents, abilities, and cultural heritage has been upheld in various international agreements, including the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights; the 1959 Declaration of the Rights of the Child; and the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Other international declarations further promote the rights of adults and special groups—including disabled individuals as well as ethnic minorities, indigenous and tribal peoples, refugees, and immigrants—to an appropriate education. UNESCO became a driving force toward the goal of universal education, especially through its sponsorship of the World Conference on Education for All (held in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990), which established 2000 as the target date for universal primary education. In UNESCO’s follow-up World Education Forum (held in Dakar, Senegal, in 2000), that goal was postponed until 2015—a realistic reflection of the difficulties of both enrolling and retaining students through a complete primary education. The target date of 2015 also became one of eight United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDG) drafted in 2000. Steps toward the achievement of universal education and other MDGs were to be tracked by specific indicators, such as literacy rates and enrollment ratios.
Access to education
Despite these international conferences, treaties, and goals, by the end of the 20th century more than 120 million primary-school-age children worldwide remained outside formal education systems. Depending on the country, and especially its level of economic development and its political system, the number of children not attending school ranged from fewer than 5 percent to well over 30 percent of the relevant age group. Moreover, it is important to note that high aggregate enrollment rates for any one region or country do not reveal how many children successfully complete the legally required years of schooling. In developing countries repetition of grade levels and dropout rates take their toll, with frequently less than half of a student cohort completing primary schooling. The initial experience of many children is often one of failure. The problem may be as general as the enrollment of children who have never been exposed to formal schooling and who simply do not understand what is occurring in the classroom. Most frequently, the problem is inappropriate curricula and foreign languages of instruction. Even though the drive to extend schooling to greater numbers of students is a universal phenomenon that does not necessarily represent a Western agenda, Western content and languages of instruction are nonetheless employed in countries whose citizens would prefer their education systems to reflect their own cultures and national goals.
For those who complete the initial stages of schooling, examinations commonly serve as a filtering device for determining who shall go on to postprimary education. As countries develop economically, compulsory schooling is extended, and selective examinations are consequently instituted for entry into upper secondary and higher education (as, for example, in South Korea and Japan). Countries with greater wealth tend both to expand education to a greater number of students and to extend the number of years of compulsory schooling. But even expansive systems eventually introduce selection devices for the most advanced and prestigious levels and types of education.
Central questions concerning the role of education in reproducing social status or opening up opportunity to everyone revolve around who has access to what levels and types of education; what is learned; and how the postschool outcomes of education affect occupational attainment, income, social status, and even power. A predominant theme in discussions of education in the late 20th and early 21st centuries was that of equality of educational opportunity (EEO). Some analyses of EEO liken opportunity to a footrace by asking the following three questions: (1) are the contestants equally prepared at the starting line?; (2) are they running on the same course?; and (3) do they all have a fair chance of crossing the finish line? EEO does not necessarily mean, however, that the educational outcomes will be the same for every student.
Implications for socioeconomic status
In the West a commonly used measure of social class is an index of socioeconomic status (SES), which usually takes into account the occupational status, income, and education levels of children’s families. To determine whether education systems are truly meritocratic in their workings and outcomes, several hypotheses need to be tested using the SES index. In The Limits and Possibilities of Schooling (1993), the American sociologist Christopher Hurn proposed one method of evaluating education systems over time. Hurn identified the following set of relationships between variables: first, the correlation between adults’ educational attainment (years of schooling and degrees completed) and socioeconomic status should grow stronger over time; second, the correlation between parents’ SES and the educational attainment of their children should diminish over time; and, third, the correlation between the SES of parents and that of their offspring should also decrease over time.
Not all of Hurn’s tests of meritocracy, when applied to actual outcomes, have proved true. In the first case, international experience supports the proposition that education has become the strongest determinant of individuals’ occupational status and chances of success in adult life. For the two other variables, however, the evidence does not demonstrate a decrease over time in the relationship between family background and children’s educational attainment. Rather, the correlation between family SES and school success or failure appears to have increased worldwide in recent decades. Moreover, long-term trends suggest that, as societies industrialize and modernize, social class becomes increasingly important—compared with the role of school-related factors—in determining educational outcomes and occupational attainment.
Social consequences of education in developing countries
Evidence is similarly mixed with regard to gender equality in access to high-quality education and opportunities to enter nontraditional fields of study. Although international agencies and national governments have been active since the late 1980s in promoting education rights for girls and women, complex changes were not adopted swiftly. Of the 120 million children excluded from education systems at the turn of the 21st century, for example, approximately 60 percent were girls and nearly three-fourths were living in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. At the same time, of the nearly 900 million illiterate adults in the world at the beginning of the 21st century, almost two-thirds were women. Again, the greatest number and percentage of illiterate female adults were located in the poorest regions. If geographic location and ethnicity are taken into account, as many as two-thirds to three-fourths of rural indigenous women in the least-developed countries lack the basic literacy skills to claim their citizenship rights—for example, the right to vote. In some contexts there are strong cultural, economic, and political obstacles to women’s access to education. Despite these negative patterns, there have been indications of gains made by women. In many countries a majority of secondary-education graduates and university entrants are women. In the 1970s and ’80s women also began entering technical and professional fields such as engineering and computer sciences in greater numbers, although these advances had plateaued by the turn of the 21st century. In developed and developing countries alike, however, higher educational attainment for women does not necessarily translate into thorough equality in occupational status and income. Education nonetheless leads to healthier, more productive populations, which is why many international organizations argue that the best long-term strategy in the fight against AIDS is universal primary education.
The role of the state
Equality of educational and occupational opportunity and outcomes for women as well as for other previously underprivileged groups (working-class, rural, and minority children) is greatly dependent on mutually reinforcing economic and education policies. Comparative studies suggest that government policies favouring overall poverty reduction and wage equity can contribute to overcoming past educational and economic disadvantages. At the same time, there are strong convergent policies internationally that call for a diminished role for the state in the provision of social services such as education; for decentralization of educational governance and financing structures; for privatization of public education through school-voucher programs or by charging fees for services once provided free; and, generally, for the application of a market logic to the overall workings of public schooling.
Critics of these decentralized, more market-oriented approaches acknowledge that they are well-intentioned and are aimed at increasing the equity, quality, and efficiency of education systems through greater local participation in decision making about school standards, competitiveness, and accountability. But critics believe such policies may contribute to disappointing and contradictory results. For example, in countries with great disparities in the wealth and resources of different regions, the transfer of funding and administrative responsibilities to subnational governmental units (on provincial, departmental, municipal, and even specific-school levels) may lead to increasing gaps between educational outcomes for the rich and the poor. Moreover, scores on standardized achievement tests tend to reflect differences in family background and community resources; test results tend to show that urban children from affluent backgrounds attending better schools (whether public or private) typically outperform less-well-off rural children in public schools, and achievement tests similarly document the continuation of past inequities in educational opportunities for ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples. Furthermore, some government policies that reduce basic social services have increased the overall level of poverty and the distance between top and bottom income earners within and between countries. In poorer countries the rate of school expansion is decreasing, and in some cases a process of “deschooling” (keeping children out of school) is occurring not only for economic reasons but also because of the inappropriateness of education systems that do not recognize the particular needs stemming from local cultural values and languages. In the long run, however, there is the possibility that local values will be complemented or supplanted by more cosmopolitan ones.
Despite these constraints, there are poor countries that have nonetheless achieved outstanding results on international standardized achievement tests in the areas of language, mathematics, and science while also providing near-universal secondary education. One such example is Cuba, where education and health have been viewed as fundamental components of the Cuban Revolution (1959). Alternatively, Finland exemplifies a wealthier country whose students on average have performed well on various measures of achievement and where differences between top- and bottom-scoring schools and between various categories of students have been minimal. Such successes tend to occur in countries that give priority to investments in education, health, and other social services, while other positive academic results can be seen from governments that are willing to experiment with alternative forms of education and to support innovative programs.
A number of examples from around the world indicate that governments can improve the educational achievement of the great majority of students—even those most at risk of academic failure. Studies such as Unequal Schools, Unequal Chances: The Challenges to Equal Opportunity in the Americas, edited by Fernando Reimers (2000), identify measures governments have implemented with successful results. These can range from the provision of health care services and supplemental nutrition to improvements in school infrastructure that provide poorer children with basics such as school desks and chairs, electricity, and running water. Other solutions may involve flexible academic calendars that mesh with the socioeconomic needs of students and their families in different parts of a country. Also important are adequate numbers of books and teaching materials that are culturally sensitive, socially relevant, and written in “home” languages. Measures that improve the quality of instruction include teaching guides to accompany new curricula, active pedagogies that involve teamwork as well as one-on-one attention, relevant certification and ongoing education programs for teachers, and professional development opportunities and extra pay for teachers serving in challenging settings.
For girls, research suggests that there are benefits to be gained from an additional set of supportive conditions that include close proximity of schools to homes, female role models, single-sex learning environments when needed, and curricula that challenge female students, particularly in mathematics and the sciences. Other measures include reducing the costs of educating female students by waiving school fees or providing monetary incentives to families as a means of compensating for lost income (because their children are not working). Outside the classroom, agencies and community-development specialists emphasize the benefits of education while countering beliefs that the education of daughters is contrary to religious doctrine or cultural traditions.
Social and family interaction
Research further indicates that parent participation in schools is an important factor in the success of their children’s academic work. Generally, parents from more affluent backgrounds have both the resources and the confidence to play a more active role in schools and to act as advocates for their children. Moreover, the formal content of instruction and even the pedagogies employed tend to reflect the values, language, and instructional and learning patterns of the middle classes as well as the more privileged and powerful social classes. Various measures initiated by schools to equalize opportunities for less-advantaged groups include establishing closer and more systematic involvement of teachers with parents (rather than only when problems arise), arranging for parent-teacher conferences to take place at convenient locations and times, making information about the workings of the education system and individual schools available in the home language, and focusing on children’s strengths and abilities. In the absence of other social service agencies in rural areas and depressed urban neighborhoods, schools have been called upon to offer a number of educational and social services, such as extended day care, recreational activities and sports programs, health programs (including inoculations and birth control information), and literacy and adult education classes.
