education

Table of Contents

Introduction & Top Questions
Education in primitive and early civilized cultures
- Prehistoric and primitive cultures
- Education in the earliest civilizations
  - The Old World civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and North China
    - Egypt
    - Mesopotamia
    - North China
  - The New World civilizations of the Maya, Aztecs, and Incas
    - The Maya
    - The Aztecs
    - The Incas
Education in classical cultures
- Ancient India
  - The Hindu tradition
  - The introduction of Buddhist influences
  - Classical India
  - Indian influences on Asia
- Ancient China
  - The Zhou period
    - Xi (Western) Zhou (1046–771 bce)
    - Dong (Eastern) Zhou (770–256 bce)
  - The Qin–Han period
    - Qin autocracy (221–206 bce)
    - Scholarship under the Han (206 bce–220 ce)
    - Introduction of Buddhism
- Ancient Hebrews
- Ancient Greeks
  - Origins
  - Sparta
  - Athens
    - Education of youth
    - Higher education
  - The Hellenistic Age
    - The institutions
    - Physical education
    - The primary school
    - Secondary education
    - Higher education
- Ancient Romans
  - Early Roman education
  - Roman adoption of Hellenistic education
    - Roman modifications
    - Education of youth
    - Higher education
  - Education in the later Roman Empire
Education in Persian, Byzantine, early Russian, and Islamic civilizations
- Ancient Persia
- The Byzantine Empire
  - Stages of education
    - Elementary education
    - Secondary education
    - Higher education
  - Professional education
- Early Russian education: Kiev and Muscovy
- The Islamic Era
  - Influences on Muslim education and culture
  - Aims and purposes of Muslim education
  - Organization of education
  - Major periods of Muslim education and learning
  - Influence of Islamic learning on the West
Europe in the Middle Ages
- The background of early Christian education
  - From the beginnings to the 4th century
  - From the 5th to the 8th century
  - The Irish and English revivals
- The Carolingian renaissance and its aftermath
  - The cultural revival under Charlemagne and his successors
  - Influences of the Carolingian renaissance abroad
  - Education of the laity in the 9th and 10th centuries
- The medieval renaissance
  - Changes in the schools and philosophies
    - Monastic schools
    - Urban schools
    - New curricula and philosophies
    - Thomist philosophy
  - The development of the universities
    - The Italian universities
    - The French universities
    - The English universities
    - Universities elsewhere in Europe
    - General characteristics of medieval universities
  - Lay education and the lower schools
Education in Asian civilizations: c. 700 to the eve of Western influence
- India
  - The foundations of Muslim education
  - The Mughal period
- China
  - The Tang dynasty (618–907 ce)
  - The Song (960–1279)
  - The Mongol period (1206–1368)
  - The Ming period (1368–1644)
  - The Manchu period (1644–1911/12)
- Japan
  - The ancient period to the 12th century
  - The feudal period (1192–1867)
    - Education of the warriors
    - Education in the Tokugawa era
    - Effect of early Western contacts
European Renaissance and Reformation
- The channels of development in Renaissance education
  - The Muslim influence
  - The secular influence
- The humanistic tradition in Italy
  - Early influences
  - Emergence of the new gymnasium
  - Nonscholastic traditions
- The humanistic tradition of northern and western Europe
  - Dutch humanism
  - Juan Luis Vives
  - The early English humanists
- Education in the Reformation and Counter-Reformation
  - Luther and the German Reformation
  - The English Reformation
  - The French Reformation
  - The Calvinist Reformation
  - The Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation
  - The legacy of the Reformation
European education in the 17th and 18th centuries
- The social and historical setting
  - The new scientism and rationalism
  - The Protestant demand for universal elementary education
- Education in 17th-century Europe
  - Central European theories and practices
    - The pedagogy of Ratke
    - The pedagogy of Comenius
    - The schools of Gotha
  - French theories and practices
    - Courtly education
    - The teaching congregations
    - Female education
  - English theories and practices
    - The Puritan reformers
    - Royalist education
  - The academies
- Education in 18th-century Europe
  - Education during the Enlightenment
    - John Locke’s empiricism and education as conduct
    - Giambattista Vico, critic of Cartesianism
    - The condition of the schools and universities
  - The background and influence of Pietism
    - August Hermann Francke
    - Johann Julius Hecker
  - The background and influence of naturalism
    - The Sensationists
    - The Rousseauists
  - The influence of nationalism
    - France
    - National education under enlightened rulers
    - England
- European offshoots in the New World
  - Spanish and Portuguese America
  - French Québec
  - British America
    - New England
    - The new academies
    - The middle colonies
    - The Southern colonies
    - Newfoundland and the Maritime Provinces.
Western education in the 19th century
- The social and historical setting
- The early reform movement: the new educational philosophers
  - Pestalozzi
    - The pedagogy of Pestalozzi
    - The influence of Pestalozzi
  - Froebel and the kindergarten movement
    - The pedagogy of Froebel
    - The kindergarten movement
  - Herbart
    - The psychology and pedagogy of Herbart
    - The Herbartians
  - Other German theorists
  - French theorists
  - Spencer’s scientism
- Development of national systems of education
  - Germany
    - Humboldt’s reforms
    - Developments after 1815
    - Girls’ schools
    - The new German universities
  - France
    - Development of state education
    - Secondary education
  - England
    - Elementary Education Act
    - Secondary and higher education
  - Russia
  - The United States
    - The educational awakening
    - Secondary education
    - Education for females
    - Higher education
  - The British dominions
    - Canada
    - Australia
    - New Zealand
- The spread of Western educational practices to Asian countries
  - India
    - Education under the East India Company
    - Indian universities
  - Japan
    - The Meiji Restoration and the assimilation of Western civilization
    - Establishment of a national system of education
    - The conservative reaction
    - Establishment of nationalistic education systems
    - Promotion of industrial education
Education in the 20th century
- Social and historical background
- Major intellectual movements
  - Influence of psychology and other fields on education
  - Traditional movements
  - New foundations
    - Progressive education
    - Child-centred education
    - Scientific-realist education
    - Social-reconstructionist education
- Major trends and problems
- Western patterns of education
  - The United Kingdom
    - Early 19th to early 20th century
    - Education Act of 1944
    - The comprehensive movement
    - Further education
  - Germany
    - Imperial Germany
    - Weimar Republic
    - Nazi Germany
    - Changes after World War II
  - France
    - The Third Republic
    - Changes after World War II
  - Other European countries
    - Italy
    - The Netherlands
    - Switzerland
    - Sweden
  - The United States
    - Expansion of American education
    - Curriculum reforms
    - Federal involvement in local education
    - Changes in higher education
    - Professional organizations
  - Canada
    - Canadian educational reforms
    - The administration of public education
  - Australia and New Zealand
    - Australia
    - New Zealand
Revolutionary patterns of education
- Russia: from tsarism to communism
  - Before 1917
  - 1917–30
  - The Stalinist years, 1931–53
  - The Khrushchev reforms
  - From Brezhnev to Gorbachev
  - Perestroika and education
- China: from Confucianism to communism
  - The modernization movement
  - Education in the republic
  - Education under the Nationalist government
  - Education under communism
  - Post-Mao education
  - Communism and the intellectuals
Patterns of education in non-Western or developing countries
- Japan
  - Education at the beginning of the century
  - Education to 1940
  - Education changes during World War II
  - Education after World War II
- South Asia
  - Pre-independence period
  - The postindependence period in India
  - The postindependence period in Pakistan
  - The postindependence period in Bangladesh
  - The postindependence period in Sri Lanka
- Africa
  - Ethiopia
  - Liberia
  - South Africa
  - General influences and policies of the colonial powers
  - Education in Portuguese colonies and former colonies
  - German educational policy in Africa
  - Education in British colonies and former colonies
  - Education in French colonies and former colonies
  - Education in Belgian colonies and former colonies
  - Problems and tasks of African education in the late 20th century
- The Middle East
  - Colonialism and its consequences
  - The second half of the 20th century
  - The Islamic revival
  - Migration and the brain drain
- Latin America
  - The heritage of independence
  - Administration
  - Primary education and literacy
  - Secondary education
  - Higher education
  - Reform trends
- Southeast Asia
  - Myanmar
  - Malaysia and Singapore
  - Indonesia
  - Philippines
  - Thailand
  - Cambodia
  - Laos
  - Vietnam
Global trends in education
- The development and growth of national education systems
  - Education and social cohesion
  - Education and social conflict
  - Education and personal growth
  - Education and civil society
  - Education and economic development
- Global enrollment trends since the mid-20th century
  - Primary-level school enrollments
  - Secondary-level school enrollments
  - Tertiary-level school enrollments
  - Other developments in formal education
  - Literacy as a measure of success
- Global commitments to education and equality of opportunity
  - Access to education
  - Implications for socioeconomic status
  - Social consequences of education in developing countries
  - The role of the state
  - Social and family interaction
  - Alternative forms of education

References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics

Images & Videos

a classroom in Brazil

Peter I the Great

University of Heidelberg

courtyard of the madrasah of Sultan Ḥasan

Read Next

Standardized test. Multiple choice exam sheet with pencil

Pro and Con: Standardized Tests

Empty classroom, school

Pro and Con: School Vouchers

Girl student writing in her notebook in classroom in school.

10 Common Questions Kids Have About School, Life, and Being a Student

Father helping his son with his homework. Parent child student little boy

Pro and Con: Homework

Discover

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Italian Renaissance painter from Florence. Engraving by Cosomo Colombini (d. 1812) after a Leonardo self portrait. Ca. 1500.

10 Famous Artworks by Leonardo da Vinci

The Cheshire Cat is a fictional cat from Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. (Alice in Wonderland)

11 Banned Books Through Time

Title: Senate Square, St. Petersburg, December 14, 1825: repression of the troop mutiny - watercolor by Carl Ivanovitch Kollman, 1825 depicts Decembrist uprising clashing with cavalry, with spectators watching. (new style December 26, 1825) Europe. Saint

8 of the Largest Empires in History

Los Angeles Police Department wanted flyer on Elizabeth Short, aka the "Black Dahlia," who was brutally murdered in January 1947. The FBI supported the Los Angeles Police Department in the case, including by identifying Short through her fingerprints that

America’s 5 Most Notorious Cold Cases (Including One You May Have Thought Was Already Solved)

Santa Claus flying in his sleigh, christmas, reindeer

Was Santa Claus a Real Person?

An ancient egyptian hieroglyphic painted carving showing the falcon headed god Horus seated on a throne and holding a golden fly whisk. Before him are the Pharoah Seti and the goddess Isis. Interior wall of the temple to Osiris at Abydos, Egypt.

11 Egyptian Gods and Goddesses

New York NY/ USA- November 23, 2018 Hordes of shoppers throng the Macy's Herald Square flagship store in New York looking for bargains on the day after Thanksgiving, Black Friday.

Why Is It Called Black Friday?

education: Facts & Related Content

Written and fact-checked by The Information Architects of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Facts

Also Known As	instruction

Photos and Videos

a classroom in Brazil

Peter I the Great

University of Heidelberg

courtyard of the madrasah of Sultan Ḥasan

Educating India's large population: Challenges and solutions

Understand the application of augmented reality in an industrial setting to bring knowledge and training closer

Hear Australian educators talk about the challenges with gifted children in their early years of formal education

Learn about the use of modern technology in monitoring infant brain waves for signs of distress

Learn how school counselors assist students with everything from class schedules to mental health

See All Videos and Images →

Topics

cost of attendance (COA)expected family contribution (EFC)teaching medical education distance learning preschool education higher education special education university secondary education government social service armed force journalism assimilation activities of daily living social issue political system library slavery

Dig Deeper: More Articles That Discuss This Topic

Key People

Bob Jones, Sr.

American evangelist

Nina Otero-Warren

Nina Otero-Warren

American civil rights activist and educator

Jill Biden with the first dog, Major

Jill Biden

American first lady

Paula Fox

Paula Fox

American author

James Gay Sawkins: Hilo from the Bay

Edith Kanaka‘ole

Native Hawaiian teacher, dancer, chanter, and composer

Mamie Till-Mobley

Mamie Till-Mobley

American educator and activist

Joseph Acaba

Joseph Acaba

American astronaut

Jovita Idár

Jovita Idár

Mexican American journalist, teacher, and activist

Sylvester II, detail from the ivory vessel used at the consecration of Otto III, 996; in the Domschatzkammer des Aachener Domes, Aachen, Ger.

Sylvester II

pope

Walter Gropius

Walter Gropius

German-American architect

Jürgen Ovens: portrait of John Amos Comenius

John Amos Comenius

Czech educator

Roger Bacon

Roger Bacon

English philosopher and scientist

Isocrates

Greek orator and rhetorician

Bosio, Jean-Baptiste-François: Portrait of Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Caritat, marquis de Condorcet

Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Caritat, marquis de Condorcet

French philosopher and humanist

Lomonosov, Mikhail

Mikhail Lomonosov

Russian author and scientist

Confucius

Confucius

Chinese philosopher

Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

Swiss educator

Gaspard Monge, detail of an oil painting by Jean Naigeon, 1811; in the Museum of Fine Arts, Beaune, France.

Gaspard Monge, count de Péluse

French mathematician and public official

Horace Mann

Horace Mann

American educator

Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan

Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan

Muslim scholar

List

Girl student writing in her notebook in classroom in school.

10 Common Questions Kids Have About School, Life, and Being a Student